566. Ancient Roman Gardens. Linda Farrar. This scholar has something valuable to pass on with every sentence. She is clear, easy to read and comprehensive. She combines knowledge of Classical Latin, archeology, seeds, geology, Roman sculpture, painting, mosaics, botany, horticulture, Roman leisure, weather.... For me she stands as the model of need for comprehensive study of the Classical world.
She distinguishes between hortus as a vegetable garden (rustic), private garden with walkways (urbana), pubic garden in a city, in an inn and those associated with some tombs. Most of her efforts are spent on ornamental gardens in houses . Gardens were designed to attract birds, insects to enjoys sounds while dining or reading or spending time with friends. Countless valuable observations are made. Birds on frescos were painted on top of last layer of paint- so it is thought that specialists handled this part of the painting. Romans were interested in real nature so to speak, not some flight of fancy. Gardens began with religion and had a religious content 'til the end of Roman civilization and beyond. She covers the influence of gardens in Egypt, ancient Mesopotamia, Greek gardens, Hellenistic, Persian and Etruscan gardens.
From early times the garden was important to Romans. It was a statement of self-sufficiency. Hairpins have been found in gardens- a hint that women spent time there, plus Seneca mentions women taking their children into the gardens while they worked. Even the Twelve Tables mentions gardens. The rustic garden persisted throughout Roman period. It was looked upon as a wholesome way to spend time, brought one close to nature and reminded Romans of the virtues of old Rome. In fact agriculture was virtually symbolic of religious piety. The rustic garden was right behind the house. Raised beds were often used. Wells were located in the middle of the garden.
Gardens in Domus. (Town House)
In early days the front door opened on to sidewalk. The common arrangement was the atrium tuscanicum. This made for the following arrangement: atrium, tablinum, hortus. The front of the house consisted of small shops which faced the street. The tablinum was sometimes the master’s bedroom or an official reception room. There was a window which looked on to the atrium and one which looked to the hortus. The introduction of the peristyle garden changed things. The peristyle garden came from Hellenistic , Persian, Etruscan influence. The new pattern was now: atrium, tablinum and peristylium. The interest in gardens increased so that eventually the atrium in many cases was modified to grow plants. The compluvium was enlarged to let in more light. The house of Loreius Tiburtinus in Pompeii and the House of Fortuna Annonaria in Ostia are of this new type. The traditional atrium in many cases disappeared all together.
Plants were so popular that insulae residents often grew plants in pots and placed them on ledges. Some insulae had gardens.
In fact this fondness for plants caused the villa rustica to add on a wing to accommodate this new interest or was simply transformed into a villa urbana. By 100 BC the word villa could mean a farm house, a mansion in the country or a town house. Soon Greek names began to be applied to new features: xystus for terraced garden, gymnasium, hippodromus. Farrar provides excellent caution for those obsessed with the idea that Romans imitated everything the Greeks did. The Romans used Greek words for garden features but altered what it meant to their own interests and needs. Thus a hippodrome was not a race track but a garden complete with fountains etc. shaped like a race track. The biggest change in gardens came with the introduction of aqueducts. These not only changed gardens in the cities but in the country too for much water was used by those accessing water on its way to a city. With aqueducts new plants which required more water became possible; fishponds for those who could afford such things. So villas came to be designed so that rooms such as triclinia looked out on to gardens and ponds. So these villa urbana became a type found in cities, near cities and out in the country. With the variety of plants allowed by water supply, there arose the topiarius, a gardner for ornamental gardens. Soon the topiarius and the architect for a house worked together to design. This poses an interesting suggestion that interest in gardens and plants drove the design of houses. The topiarius and the architect worked together to alter the natural surroundings to enhance architecture. Interestingly the architecture, that is the building, provides a frame for nature. A peristyle garden was preferred but when there was not enough room, the full set of columns around the perimeter was reduced and space allowances made. Low holes in columns indicate a low fence where planting troughs on top converted wall into green consisting of vines. The top of the wall could also serve as bench seats. The columns in front of a triclinium were set further apart than others to allow clear view of garden or pond, high holes indicate use of curtain rods. Not only the view was beneficial but this arrangement also allowed better air circulation. Cisterns were often located in the garden. Sometimes these were carved with relief as one was at Cicero’s house which he mentioned in his letters to Atticus.
Paths were used to allow enjoyment of the garden. In fact it is important to remember that Romans did indeed have views of gardens but the garden was designed so that humans were part of the garden. Romans did not see their building designs as an intrusion into nature but nature and human working together to enhance beauty. Local material was used. Often drains have been found under them to keep the path dry. Paths allowed a stroll but also marked out beds and plants. Decorative fencing and trellis work was often done with reeds (arundo donax). These were sometimes placed in the ground at an angle to create a diamond pattern. Metal rails were used. Marble could be used too.
Pergolas had support posts of stone or wood. But most of the framework was of wood to allow light and a place for vines to grow. What was grown on these? Ivy, grapes, gourds, roses. Romans rested in these, dined, read, talked to friends. Enjoyed the birds. There is a fine pergola at house of Tiburtinus in Pompeii. It is very pleasant and soothing.
Expensive couches, tables were taken out to the garden. A poem by Statius mentions how he and his friends had to scurry about removing tables etc. when a storm broke upon them suddenly. Some couches were designed to remain outside, some of marble. A schola was a curved stone bench, one exists at Pompeii in the Triangular Forum. The basins of fountains were often raised to allow more places for seating. This is the case for most antique fountains in Rome. Many times tables consisted of center post of marble upon which a fine wooden top may be set. Some table tops show slight depressions where plates went. Summer dining couches were often outside under a pergola or along side a pool or fountain. The traditional U shape for dining is common but also were biclinium as found a house of Tiburtinus. A stibadium was a large curved dining arrangement as found at Hadrian’s Villa. If water was involved, sometimes trays of food floated in front of the guests or diners.
The lararium which held the Lares and Penates for a house was in the atrium but often aediculae were incorporated into the garden dedicated to some deity. These were built out from the wall. There was room for offerings since these were not just decorations. Some aediculae were nymphaea. (Romans had an abidding and ancient love and respect for a kind of divine power associated with flowing water.) These were often framed with shells which were not only attractive but symbols of Venus who was the goddess of gardens. The inner surface was often covered with pumice to duplicate a grotto. Grottoes were homes to nymphs who inhabited the natural spring. This represents the connection of the garden with religious sites revered so much by Romans. Walls were used to prevent theft and often had small niches in them for statuary, lamps. There are sunken gardens. Some of these may have been done to conserve water and provide added air-conditioning. There is one at Pompeii- House of Ancora Nera. The Hippodrome at the Palace in Rome is sunken in relation to rest of palace. There are viewing balconies for diners above. There is a stadium at Hadrian’s villa too.
There were terraced gardens. These may be inspired by Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Terraced gardens had cypress trees with vine/ivy grown draping between. The garden at Villa of the Mysteries is terraced. There is also a cryptoportico here. The Horti Luculliani on Pincian Hill in Rome were terraced. The large and famous Palatial gardens and those of Hadrian at Tivoli and of course Golden House of Nero were terraced. Beside the Hippodrome gardens in the Palace in Rome the Villa Quintillii had one. These large villas often had Pavilions to provide views.
Many gardens had Diaetae (restroom) for peace and quiet and seclusion. There is one at House of Tiburtinus. Some gardens had aviaries. Some had shrines such as the one Cicero probably had for his daughter, Tullia.
Caves and grottoes symbolized entrances to underworld. These were planted more rustically. The spring would have added its own sound to the pleasantries. There were fountains (nymphaea) designed in rooms shaped like a basilica. This lends more strength to the fact that Roman design is so adaptable to so many uses and functions. One more reason why Roman architecture is so universal.
Some ponds allowed dishing by guests. Picture these with gardens as part of the total picture complete with views to be had from near by rooms.
Water conservation is evident. Water was used elsewhere after doing its job in pools and fountains. Drains from these kept cisterns full. Water pipes to garden areas had shut off valves.
The lining of pools were decorated. The final layer of plaster applied to pools was waterproof. It was impregnated with color. The House of Meleager and the House of the Hunt in Pompeii show this. Sometimes fish were painted. Some of these pools may have used filtered water for archeologists were surprised at one to find no silt. This makes sense to me, if the water came from an aqueduct, for all aqueducts which I have read about in Rome had one kind of filtering system or another. I am not sure about the two aqueducts which took their water from rivers. The depth of a pool is an indication of presence of fish. Sometimes amphorae were fixed into the side of pools to give places for fish to get away from heat and for breading. Ornamental pools used same type patterns as found in buildings- basilica, reverse curves, exhedrae. Schola of Trajan at Ostia has an ornamental pool. Pool is off to the side of the garden to collect water from the roof. Sometimes, if size permitted, there were bridges which allowed someone(s) to get away from it all as the so-called Maritime Theater at Hadrian’s Villa. All of these are symmetrical. Nights lamps were evidently used at some of these. These must have provided beautiful reflections, particularly when one realizes that these lights gave off a beautiful gilded light. I have experienced this using the kerosene lamps I used to study by while reading in my library. The light produced is more subtle than electric and generates a chiaroscuro not matched by modern lighting. I wonder too if some of these pools were intended to take advantage of the light of the moon. I would not be surprised if they did.
A spring trickling down from rocks was viewed with awe by Romans. They enjoyed the sounds too. Pliny the Younger in one of his letters gives a beautiful description of a spring which emptied into a pool. At the bottom were visible countless coins and pebbles tossed in by those making an offering. These springs, if they existed at a villa, would be made into a rustic spring. Such things were duplicated artificially in places where no such spring existed. Tufa and pumice were used. Keep in mind that Roman fountains did not have the water pressure we are used to.
Some fountains merely consisted of a bowl with water bubbling up through a hole in the middle. These are often seen in murals. Birds are often shown at these. Doves represented souls drinking the water of everlasting life. The scalloped edges of these bowls allowed water to be controlled and also show off the marble. There is one of these in the Vatican Museum. A portion of a huge one is in courtyard of the Capitoline Museum.
Water stairs were admired. There is one at House of Tiburtinus. There is also one in Vatican. Sometimes these were decorated with animals plants which make a link with Venus or Diana etc.
Fountains could be dolphins, peacocks, lion mouths or even pine cones. But do not look at these as desperate attempts to fine something new or odd as modern art searches for the unusual or bizarre. The Romans were struck by the pine cone’s almost unique ability after a fire to pop open its scales to release a seed. These symbolized rebirth and fertility. There are numerous methods of dispensing water. There were even mechanical fountains where owls would turn, then birds would sing and move about.
Garden sculpture was of stone, bronze, terracotta. These were designed to catch the eye and generate conversation. Cato mentioned that it was the Matrona’s (Mom) responsibility to acquire flowers for draping on statues during special occasions. These were also available ready made from vendors in the street. Garlands were often of roses. Statues were carefully placed. Up against a tree to create contrast with marble color. They faced inward to garden, outward. Depending on mood and setting owner wished to create. Near water to catch reflection. Slightly angled to be viewed from garden and some room nearby. Paired statues looking at each other. Mirror image statues. Statues of dogs, ibis, cows, Pan, Satyr, duck, deer, rabbit, boy etc. have been found. The Spinario in the Capitoline Museum was probably in a garden. These statues were not normally very large to fit the size and setting of the garden. Note here that Romans did not collect art for art’s sake. It had to fit some where. They did not buy stuff and line it up on some shelf or stuff some room. Large statues of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva and the like usually were reserved for large public gardens. Most statues were mass produced. But do not think that this meant that quality was lacking. A rustic setting needed something of Silvanus, Priapus. A library needed Minerva. Venus could be in any place. Children and animals were very popular. Deities were often paired:
Jupiter with Tellus
Sol with Luna
Ceres with Liber
Robigus with Flora
Minerva with Venus
Lympha with Bonus Eventus
Flora is for flowers, Pomona for fruit. A crouching Venus may have been picking something from a garden. Venus could be represented by a hare, dove, rose, myrtle. Venus is associated with Ceres, Eros, Diana, Apollo, nymphs, graces. Mars was in the garden too. Originally he was an agriculture god. The garden can represent the haunt for Diana, the huntress- complete with dogs, animals and birds flying to visit the garden. She could be used to represent the raw savage side of nature such as a dog attacking a stag or she could be combined with say Orpheus to symbolize harmony with nature. The pair of hounds in the animal room in the Vatican probably came from such a setting. Apollo with his handsome physique is linked to horticulture with his connection with the sun. Hercules was often called upon in times of stress. If one had not the money a white popular could be planted to stand in for him. Bacchus came to be associated with Liber a fertility god, associated with culture and civilization. Herms were from Greece but as is often the case, Romans adapted it to their own use. Romans often used these for portraits and as posts to hold up a fence.
Romans were a very religious people who combined appreciation for art with appropriate display of art in a garden which was a religious setting. This says Farrar. Gardens were a place a Roman could commune with nature. This system reflected a wide variety of religious beliefs. Virgin Mary in the garden may be a survival of this.
Kitchen gardens had poppy seeds for bread, veggies for pickling, plants for medicine, for bees, trefoil and rosemary as medicine for bees, plants for perfumes, flowers for wreaths, chaplets, for dried flowers for winter use, violets for scent.
Plants for decoration: acanthus (Italian variety with smooth leaf), bay laurel, box, pitch pine, cypress, oleander, lotus. It is a long list. To give an idea of how big the Romans were about plants: before the Romans the following were not found in Britain: cucumber, cherry, almond, apricot, coriander, dill, fennel, fig, garlic, grape, marjoram, mulberry, mustard, onion, parsley, pear, plum, quince, radish, sweet chestnut, turnip, walnut. The Romans brought from Britain: wild strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, crabapple, celery.
Farrar deplores old excavation methods. But modern methods of the last 30 years indicate that there was a large tree in the middle of a garden (Fruit, nut) or in each corner. It is known through literature that flowers of fruit trees were admired. Produce was fruitful and shade pleasing. Some fruits give off pleasant order. At Oplontis there is a huge (was) chestnut tree in the middle shading the whole garden. Aqueducts of course permitted such gardens.
How have some of these things been found? Romans used manure heavily- this leave traces. Root decays have been found at bases of posts, a line of pits indicates a fence, a double row is probably a pergola. Even spade cuts have been found in the soil, burn sites where Roman burnt cutting etc. have been found. This reveals seeds etc.
Fauna in Roman gardens: doves, pigeons, blackbirds, thrushes, yellow orioles, goldfinch, flycatchers, nightingales, buntings, warblers- getting tired? The murals alone from the house of Livia in Palazzo Massimo in Rome show 69 different birds.
Insect, snail, reptile remains etc. can give a hint to the kind of plants and birds found there.
Flower pots have been found with holes in bottom and side. This gives a hint that plants were started elsewhere and moved to this spot.
Romans thought that a grafted tree was more productive than one not. They learned that any tree with similar bark could be grafted to a tree with the same. Pliny mentions a tree with the following grafts: nuts, berries, grapes, figs, pomegranate and various apples. They pruned roots to keep trees a dwarf. Flowering can be induced by driving stakes into roots.
The irrigation system at Hadrian's Villa was impressive. Water from nymphaea at Water Court was channeled to pools spread out though garden and pipes underground also lead under gardens placed in between. Thus capillary action watered the plants in these beds. No watering was needed by slaves carrying buckets etc.
Romans made molds for cucumbers to grow in shapes like that of a man or beast or snake.
Olive and wine lees were used to treat ailing trees. Modern research has shown that these are indeed beneficial.
Romans learned that certain plants if planted by another plant prevented insect infestation.
Based on what has been written it should come as no surprise that huge garden industries existed outside of and near cities.
Restaurants sometimes had gardens which were used to lure diners in. Interesting that the adds talk of quality gardens not food prepared.
Public gardens were large. But often productive. Sometimes the grapes were harvested and pressed into juice. Of course these offered a place for contemplation, rest and a means to get away from it all. Mention is made of numerous flowers, vines, walkways etc.
Most scholars used to think that gardens at Pompeii were based on Greek principles. All evidence indicates that these are not similar to Greek gardens. BUT gardens in provinces all over the Roman empire are similar to those in Italy. Greek courts were paved. Romans liked nature.
Do not think that gardens are an obvious consequence of society. During the Dark Ages horticulture on the level of that of the Romans was unheard of until the rediscovery of writings by Cato, Varro, Palladius. The Dark Ages were a gloomy time.
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