544. Cicero Imperator by Magnus Wistrand- This is a fine scholar. This book was written nearly twenty years ago when Cicero was still in the beginning stages of reanalysis. In fact when I began teaching 27 years ago Cicero was held in low esteem by many scholars. He was viewed as a vacillating windbag.
Wistrand examined the letters which survive and other historical documents for the period 51 BC to 47 BC. This was the period during which Cicero was governor of Cilicia in southern Turkey until he returned to Italy after Pharsalos and met Caesar in September 47 BC. There is much to learn from this book. Wistrand makes a strong case that Cicero, during these troubled times, not only laid a course for his political conduct but stuck to it.
In February of 51 BC Cicero was made Governor of Cilicia. His imperium was confirmed by a Lex. While in Cilicia he, along with another Roman military presence in the area, manuvred to prevent a Parthian incursion. Cicero laid seige to Pindenissum. He was saluted Imperator by his troops. The success caused Cicero to hope for a triumph. Some historians have mocked Cicero’s pretentions to this triumph. This book gives very plausible reasons for the line which Cicero took.
Here is a very brief summary of the impressive anaylsis by Wistrand. By the time Cicero arrived in Italy after his term as governor expired, the political situation had deteriorated. Cicero pushed for some kind of peace settlement. A SCU was passed January 7, 49 BC. ordering Caesar to lay down his arms. Cicero had to maintain a difficult balancing act. He needed to conduct himself properly as a general with full imperium and he wished to maintain his credentials as a possible peacemaker between Pompey and Caesar. As .long as the possibility of peace presented itself, Cicero took a passive role. But this contained a major risk. If Caesar won the war, Cicero would be safe but the Republic would be lost. If Pompey won the war, the Republic would be safe, but Cicero would be at risk for having pursed peace. The pursuit of peace forced Cicero to find a way not to go to Brundisium and leave Italy with Pompey. Cicero wanted to leave Italy when he thought of heavy criticisms by leading Senators with Pompey but he wanted to stay when he saw opportunity for peace negotiations. But as peace opportunity passed, Cicero hoped to use his push for peace as an opportuinity to remain neutral and stay in Italy. This received a set back when Cicero learned that Caesar wanted Cicero in Rome for a Senate meeting. Attendance at such a meeting would signal that Cicero abandoned the Republican cause and by attending this meeting, Cicero would allow Caesar to use his presence to condemn actions by Pompey. Cicero still had hopes but these were dashed when he had a meeting with Caesar, in which it became clear that Caesar would not allow dissent. Now neutrality was out of the question. Caesar now published the letters which Cicero had written to Caesar. Caesar hoped that this would produce enough anger in the Republican camp which would force Cicero out of fear if nothing else to join Caesar. Now Cicero wished to leave Italy but he could not due to the weather. Cicero was pelted with letters to keep him in Italy. These came from Caesar who urged Cicero to stay out of the conflict. Caesar was very direct. Antony urged him to stay and suggested that to do otherwise posed a threat to himself and to his family. Caelius wrote and told Cicero not to risk endangering his reputation and his family. But during this period Cicero decided that he should wait to see what would happen in Spain. A defeat for Caesar in Spain would have dramatically altered the political situation. Caesar was vitorious in Spain. Cicero used stealth to leave Italy.
After Pompey’s defeat in Greece, Cicero at risk to his life refused to assume command of any troops. Cicero felt that Pompey was defeated and the Civil War would end at that point. Thus he returned to Brundisium in Southern Italy. Cicero faced several choices. He could lay down his imperium, become a private citizen and return to Rome. He could keep his imperium and then he would have to stay in Brundisium. If he wished to keep his imperium and travel to Rome, he would have to do so without notice. Cicero’s return to Rome with imperium and lictors (12) would cause major problems for Antonty left in charge by Caesar in Rome in that Antony had only 6 lictors. As Repunliocan forces grew powerful in Africa, it became more imcumbent upon Cicero to stay in Brundisium and not give any impression that he favored Caesar’s cause.
Finally Caesar wrote a letter to Cicero in which either Caesar gave permission to Cicero to keep his imperium or recognized Cicero’s position. There is a good suggestion in that Caesar wanted to be vague. Why would Caesar do this? Caesar wanted to bind Cicero to him with a favor. It was clear that Cicero could only celebrate his triumph at the pleasure of Caesar. Why did Cicero at this point return to private life after manuvreing Caesar to give permission/regognize Cicero’s official position? Cicero evidently refused Caesar’s offer of celebrating a triumph. This must have been an iritant to Caesar who did not like to be disappointed. Cicero maintained his independence and ruined Caesar’s plan to have Cicero indebted to him. Cicero thus made it clear to critical Republicans that he, Cicero, was loyal to the Republic. When Cicero did return to Rome, he made it clear that he did not support Caesar, for he never spoke in the Senate until Caesar pardoned Marcellus in 46 BC.
This book also makes one realize how sophisticated Roman politics was. The book pretty much puts to rest any idea that amicitia or family alliances were the only considerations in making political decisions. Or that these concepts were simple and straightforward. Wistrand insists that Cicero kept up his desire to celebrate a triumph which he had earned while in Cilicia until the opportunity to celebrate was offered by Caesar. It is a mark of Cicero’s calculating manner and his courage that, when the offer was made, he flatly turned Caesar down.
No comments:
Post a Comment