785. Cicero on Politics and the Limits of Reason by Jed Atkins

785.  Cicero on Politics and the Limits of Reason by Jed Atkins.  

The author’s argument is that the De Republica and De Legibus of Cicero borrow ideas from Plato and the Stoics and others but changes them to Roman acceptability, but in the end rises to a different level which makes these works gems for all time and places.

Reason to Cicero meant a way to understand the proper way to live and how humans fit into the universe of life, to unite humans and determine the kind of political life for society.  Reason is divine but humans are imperfect- this impacts the nature of political society.

So this book analyzes these two works by Cicero but is not a survey of Cicero’s political views.

Cicero developed a science of politics, this is viewed from a level beyond the physical world.  His science of politics combines the ideal with what is possible.  People are not perfect, thus there is a need for an aristocratic element, monarchic and democratic.  The manipulation of these must be from the perspective that no one knows what history will bring, for life can be unpredictable.  Thus the four virtues are needed for leadership to maintain a balance in a changing world.

Atkins argues that Cicero kept himself out of De Re Publica to allow the reader to think things through for themselves instead of being told by Cicero what to think.  The style of the dialog is guided by a desire NOT to dictate what people should think.  In fact the manner of approach is to encourage discourse, discussion and study.  But in the De Legibus Cicero puts himself in the dialog, perhaps to bring an aspect of the De Re Publica into current times or the reality of a living government.

Atkins remarks that Cicero began De Re Publica after Caesar, Pompey, Crassus met at Luca in 56 B.C.  That is an interesting remark.

Cicero views practical experience as essential for political knowledge and thus places this above philosophy which “dismisses political activity as unworthy of the philosopher.”  At the same time he is careful to argue that political philosophy is of value for the practical politician.  Cicero makes the case that political philosophy allows a politician to see underlying causes and thus have a better grip on how to deal with fluctuations.

Cicero handles the participants in such a way that each contributes an aspect or idea so that the reader may in a sense participate in the growth of the discussion.

It seems to me that by giving good arguments to each member of the dialog and by letting each dispute each other and even contradict themselves, Cicero exemplifies in this way the Roman idea that private law, for example, is so valuable and possesses the quality it has because it is the work of so many over many years.  

Scenes such as that of the Dream may have had the purpose to cause the reader to go back, re-read and think.

Cicero argues that somehow even though the interests of philosophy are hostile to politics and vice versa the two must be combined if one ever hopes to grasp “the principles of civic affairs.”

Tubero’s and Scipio’s discussion bring astronomy to bear on the study of politics.  Scipio observes that astronomy can predict cycles and movement.  Perhaps the changes of a constitution can be predicted and guided.  Thus Cicero combines science and constitutional studies.  Thus the ideal state is viewed as perhaps impossible but useful as a model to create a state approximate to the ideal.  The Roman Republic contains contradictions, confusion, disorder and adjustments.  All politics does not have reason at the helm.  There are limits to reason.

Looming in the background to all this are the works of Plato, Stoics and others.  Cicero deftly uses these for his own purposes.

The Dream has two aspects:  the cosmos with its ideal, divine and rational and the Earth with non-ideal, human and irrational.  Both are combined in the Dream and both are used to “search for a scientific account of politics.”

By knowing the ideal a statesman may better direct the course of his country amidst the irrationality and unpredictability of politics.

Scipio defends the idea of in possession of the ideal but it is clear that with reason alone this system cannot adapt to the vicissitudes of politics.  To use the ideal wisely a statesman must bring one’s soul into harmony with nature’s ideal.  And then as best as possible bring fellow people as close as possible to that ideal.  This must be done with people who rarely follow reason.

The Dream reveals the limits of reason as it puts on display the “rational cosmic order.”  Thus a Roman politician’s code of honor, for example, glory, a study of the the rational cosmic order will show how meager glory is compared to the order of the universe.  This allows a re-evaluation of glory’s worth in cosmic terms.  Thus a statesman, a true statesman looks upon glory as something different from what other politicians see.  Thus even though Scipio’s grandfather who appears in the dream mentions the possibility of his murder, Scipio is eager to return to his duty.  This is in direct contrast to Plato’s man who reluctantly returns to the cave.

Scipio also rejects Polybius’ idea that humans possess rational self-interest.  Instead he feels that humans are a complex mix of reason and passions.  Thus human nature is unpredictable.

In Cicero’s view when it comes to the constitution power is not enough.  There must be auctoritas.  Auctoritas: reputation, dignity, influence, weight.  It is not something which comes from law but what is the result of getting things done or a demeanor which signals respect with a sense of awe.  The Senate has this.  This helps to produce stability- this is Roman and Roman alone.  So power with authority and liberty- there must be a balance to avoid revolution.  Liberty’s definition was a matter of dispute in Scipio’s time and in Cicero’s and for that matter in the present.  To many people liberty is a numerical equality.  This view is rather simple.  Aristotle felt that liberty without respect for dignity is a perversion of liberty- licentia.  But in the dialog Scipio realized that people must have liberty as it is universally appealing.  Concordia (harmony), caritas (charity), libertas and concilium( assembly) are to be connected to custom and education and tradition- from this citizens are educated and guided.

Atkins makes the argument that Romans possessed rights and the power to use them.  This defense he felt was needed in that in modern times he must battle the repeated assertion that the Romans did not possess rights.  He pretty must smashes that assertion.

Scipio defines res publica:  1.  property of the people

                                             2.  gathering of people in a partnership (societas) with the agreement that law, justice and rights are for common advantage.

This res publica- this property of the people= the liberty to be masters of laws, courts, of war, peace.  This property is emancipated from the power of kings or aristocrats.  If the res publica, Scipio asserts, is the property of the people, then people possess a right to run it.  The res publica represents citizens interests, activities and thus stands for rights.  (My observation-  in the De Officiis Cicero makes much of property rights.  I think that the basis of liberty is owning the res publica and undisputed rights to one’s own property.  Property in Roman private law could only be given up by an owner.  Thus Romans did not endorse eminent domain as we have.)

Consequenbtly a citizen has the right to redress if this societas (partnership) is corrupted.  The history of Rome supports this view of Scipio/Cicero- for as time passed, citizens gained more and more rights to ownership of the Republic.

Scipio argues that the reason for states is a human need, a natural desire to create a society.  Thus the purpose of government is to promote natural desires.  Natural desires are supported by laws and government.  This is the opposite of Plato and Aristotle.  Cicero does not think that people formed societies to supply what they themselves can not provide but to fulfill a need to share thoughts and ideas.

Tubero in De Re Publica questions what is needed to preserve such a state.  Thus Cicero wrote De Legibus.

Cicero in contrast to De Re Publica puts himself as one of the participants in the work on laws.  Cicero felt that the Stranger in Plato’s Laws was actually Plato.  A friend, Sallustius, may have advised him to do so.  So Cicero plays the lawgiver.

Cicero argues for Natural Law but uses elements from Stoics, Platonists and Aristotle to attract a wide audience.  Cicero may well have this idea from the time he spent with Antiochus. So Cicero felt that “all humans are governed by natural rights or justice.”  All humans possess reason, justice has been given to all humans.  There are natural qualities which humans have:  humans are upright, unlike animals (this encourages thinking), senses, facial expression and speech.  Humans are rational, this draws them together.

Atkins points out that Cicero is not dogmatic about these issues.  Cicero is not completely convinced of Natural Law but knows that if progress in argument is to be made, the power of doubt (such as that practiced by Peripatetics) must be dialed down  There is a Natural Law, Cicero feels, but as his understanding of it stands, it may not be fully correct.  But Cicero feels that in essence the Stoics, Platonists and Aristoteleans are in the end in agreement on Natural Law.

Atkins puts out a long discussion on Cicero’s sources.  The essence is this:  Cicero uses what makes the most sense.  (Cicero never seemed the type to fail to see the forest for the trees. )  He uses what make the most sense in light of his understanding of human nature, the limits of reason, the limits of government and in light of what is practical.

In Atkins’ view Cicero demonstrates how the natural, rational, divine and ideally best may purchase authority from the customary, irrational humans.

Conventionalists argue that law is what people say it is.  Thus there is no basis in nature.  This rests on the idea that humans are only motivated by self interest.

But human nature to Cicero is what is common between Gods and humans.  So Cicero looks to the very heart of the essence of what a human is.  He looks to the higher hopes and capacity of humans.  This human nature will produce laws.  These laws may not satisfy the requirements set by Natural Law.  What to do?

So laws to Cicero may be imperfect but these are valid even if said law does not fit perfectly with Natural Law.  Cicero does not think that human law modeled on Natural Law would be permanent- for all depends upon human situations which may arise.

According to Atkins Cicero uses Natural Law to help form constitutional law and religious law, but he does so in terms of society, human nature and society’s desires.  

Cicero’s constitution is characteristic of human life just about everywhere- such as respect for the dead and protection of sacred sites.

Cicero has a tripartite division of law:

1. Natural Law (ius naturale)
2. laws which ought to be (ius gentium)
3. laws actually in place (ius civile)

In the De Legibus, De Re Publica Cicero asks us to think along with the participants to examine, study and question just what can be done to come as close as possible to the ideal state.  He looks at the essence of the realizable state.  He had the good sense to know that there are limits to what reason, human reason, can accomplish.

Cicero examined people to figure out what they are by examining what they hope to be.  Thus he looked at Plato and others to see their hopes but then looked at history to see what humans are and then examine what is possible in light of an ideal.

590. Augustan Rome. Andrew Walllace- Hadrill. - Summary

590.  Augustan Rome.  Andrew Walllace- Hadrill.  The battle of Actium, September 2, 31 BC was transformed by Augustus.  First Augustus drew off support from Antonius via Virgil and Horace and by depicting him as associating with everything East and casting this in a light opposed to values of Rome.  Eventually this was transformed into a battle which required the effort of a god to set matters right for Rome.  Antonius slowly faded into the mist.

It is important to understand that Augustus had not figured out in advance what he would do.  The plan developed as situations arose.  Ovid’s Metamorphoses is a good example, says the author, that transformation is slow. 
The biggest dilemma which Augustus faced was the Republic.  It had to be restored to secure his position but to restore the Republic fully would mean that his position would have to be eliminated.  So he restored the Republic but kept key provinces with the bulk of the armies.  The Senate was in control of numerous provinces but guarded by fewer forces. So in one sense the restoration was a joke but in another way it was not.  If he wished to save the Republic he needed extraordinary powers to protect it from the intense competition which the political system demanded.  Augustus held office but one consul was equal to another, one tribune had same powers as another.  He was given greater prestige and authority.  By Republican standards this was possessing superhuman powers.  So poets and art begin to give the impression that he was “on loan from Jupiter” to protect the Roman world.  It is unfair to label the references of Virgil and Horace to Augustus’ divine powers as licking his boots.  Society was looking for ways to understand this new dimension. His name, Augustus, has connections with religious terms.  It means revered.  So the name gave him a connection to temple worship but stopped short of declaring him a god.
Romans evidently never had a written constitution because they wished to able to adjust to changing situations.  So his position in some ways harkened back to an older version of the Republic.  Tradition in so many ways was a common experience in Roman culture.  The trappings of senatorial achievements: triumphs, monuments, inscriptions were slowly absorbed by Augustus to himself.  Eventually under Tiberius elections were transfered to the Senate. 
By creating a professional army Augustus made a more clear distinction between soldier and citizen.
Augustus slept in the same bed in his house on the Palatine for 40 years.  As time went by more and more religious emblems adorned his house: wreaths, laurels, ivy and a temple of Apollo nearby.  (It must have attracted a great deal of attention and in spite of the fact that it was the Princeps’ house the area was considered by Ovid to be a great place to pick up chicks.) In a similar fashion the nobility was absorbed.  Still there but connected to the royal family.  That he held so much authority made it necessary for nobility to seek his support to pursue their goals.  As time passed the nobility was not a threat but, something he probably did not anticipate, the new threat came from within his own house. 
House members such as women gained power too.  Not official power but the kind that comes from concentrating power and authority within the walls of his own home.  Octavia, his sister, was the first woman to appear on coins.  Caligula referred to his won grandmother as ”Ulysses in  petticoats.”
The author identifies three phases of intrigue:
Octavia
Julia/Livia
Livia

Evidence of court intrigue may be in one of Ovid’s poems.  He praised Gaius, grandson
of Augustus.  Gaius may have had friends opposed to Livia’s interests.  May help to account for Ovid’s exile.
The population of Rome was cosmopolitan- this contained its own set of problems.  The population was prone to violence.  This probably forced a willing Augustus to be the protector of the people.   The Tribunate fit well with this.
Rome became something upon which Augustus had great influence.  The 14 modern districts are modeled on his divisions of the city.  He restored 82 temples in one year.  The forum became a place where every stone was, practically, sacred.  His arch in the forum listed all triumphs and past consuls.  There were numerous monuments which one way or another reminded the passerby of Augustus.
The author seems to suggest that Ovid’s confiscation of war terms for use in his poems was part of this process of stripping such from noble use.  I wonder if these poems were found to be offensive to Augustus because they mock warlike traits.  Ovid may have also made Augustus angry by writing poems which mocked Augustus’ new morality.  Augustus made efforts in many areas to prevent another civil war.
The obelisk, sun dial, Ara Pacis may have been arranged the way it was to use mathematics to connect Augustus to the Gods.  As a result peace, prosperity became associated with him to the degree that liberty suffered.  Disorder could not be tolerated.   
Augustus never had a blueprint from which to work.  Like any great leader he was forced to respond to situations as they presented themselves and find ways to fit this in with what he felt needed to be done.  Stability was a worthy result but liberty suffered.

588. Livy- The War with Hannibal. XXVlll, XXlX, XXX.- Summary

588.  XXVlll, XXlX, XXX. Livy- The War with Hannibal.
XXVlll.  Scipio and his subordinates perform impressively in Spain.  Laevinius plunders African coast.  He destroys a number of Carthaginian warships.  And the Romans keep Philip very busy in Greece. Nero and Livius celebrate a triumph.  People gave them heart felt thanks. 
At the battle of Ilipa in Spain Scipio faces Hasrdubal.  Each day Scipio brought out his army arranged thus:  Romans in the center facing Carthaginians and his allies on the wings.  This pattern was used on several consecutive days.  Scipio readies his army early in the morning, and reverses the pattern.  He offers battle, Hasdrubal can not alter his.  Scipio severely defeats Hasdrubal.  Desertions were rampant.  Masinissa, an ally of Carthage changes sides, Scipio forms an alliance with Syphax in Africa.
Scipio faces a mutiny within his army.  8,000 mutiny.  A rumor that Scipio had died did not help. Those thirty who were responsible were put to death.  The rest were humbled to say the least.  Two Spanish tribe leaders planned to take advantage of the mutiny.  Both are quickly brought to heel.  Mago attempts to retake New Carthage.  He fails.
It is reasonably clear that Scipio wisely did not pursue Hasdrubal into Italy.  There were simply too many loose ends to take care of in Spain.  Too much was at stake to give Carthage any time to recover.
Scipio returns to Rome. The Senate meets with him outside of Rome at the temple of Bellona.  His list of accomplishments is impressive.   Elections are held for consuls.  Many come merely to see Scipio. 
Representatives from Saguntum set for elaborate details of Rome’s determination to make things right.  Those citizens sold by the Carthaginians as slaves were tracked down by Scipio’s brother (This would be those brothers who died on duty in Spain- father and uncle of Scipio who eventually drove out the Carthaginians) and restored.  Scipio, the son, continued what his father and uncle began. Finances were set on a firm foundation for Saguntum.  The representatives asked permission from Senate to visit Italy.  The Senate presented them with letters of introduction to any city they wished to visit in Italy.
Now the issue arose in the Senate how best to deal with Hannibal.  Apparently Fabius Maximus opposed the invasion of Africa. He was insistent that Hannibal be defeated in Italy and then Africa be invaded.  He was leery of the vicissitudes of war.   Plus it may be that he anticipated the possibility of another command against Hannibal when Scipio’s term expired.  Fabius accused Scipio of looking to his own interests and glory than those of his country.  It is clear that Scipio posed a major threat to Fabius' and Fulvius' political supremacy.
It seems to me that Livy appears to set up Scipio as a precursor to Pompey or Caesar. Livy seems to do that on other occasions too.
Fabius and Fulvius bring enough pressure to bear that the Senate finally decides to assign Scipio to Sicily with option to invade Africa, if necessary.  Further evidence of the clout Fabius and his associates possessed is made clear when Scipio is assigned only two legions.  Thus Scipio could enlarge his army via volunteers.  He could not levy troops.  He is only permitted 30 warships (far less than what he would need for an invasion).  Supplies begin to pour in from all over Italy.  In fact the list is interesting to get an idea of the war machine manufacturing the Romans had put together.
XXlX.  Scipio begins enlisting volunteers. 
In Spain Indibilis formed a revolt.  The Roman commander was victorious.  Indibilis dies. 
Locri envoys came to complain of Roman treatment.  Fabius attempts to involve Scipio.  There is even talk of recalling Scipio from Sicily.  Quintus Metellus carries the day.  Scipio advances to Africa and establishes a base.  Masinissa is an ally.
These political attacks by Fabius/Fulvius need to be placed in some perspective.  It is sad that politics has a bad reputation but only because people have so little understanding of not how politics works but what value comes from the political process. The ruling class, if you recall from an earlier summary, came under some heavy criticism for finding ways to prolong the war to keep themselves in a position of power and influence.  It wasn’t that but the nature of the political process Romans had developed. Political competition almost necessitated that opposing political groups find ways to curb growing power of a political group.  Fabius/Fulvius forged an alliance to keep themselves in a position of importance.  Along comes a Scipionic group which offers a challenge to their supremacy.  Two opposing groups pursue their political interests.  In the process it did prolong the war as each group vied for superiority.  It did here as Fabius and his group opposed the plan of the Scipionic group.  Thus only 30 warships, two legions etc.  This must have been frustrating to each group trying to get their plan in play while another group did its best to hamstring the affair.  Yet this system, clearly inefficient, provides an opportunity for different groups to participate, share their ideas and work out competition in a civilized manner.  The political system developed by the Romans allows political pressure to work itself out in a way which ultimately brought advantage to the state.

XXX.  Begins the 16th year of the war.  Scipio’s command was not limited by a date.  He was assigned until the job was done.  This appears to be the system which the Senate used consistently.  Syphax had gone back to the Carthaginians.  Scipio attacks his camp and Syphax.  Scipio sends Laelius back to Rome with Syphax.
Carthage sends envoys to ask for peace.  Scipio offers terms which are designed to limit Carthage’s ability to regain an empire.  Carthaginians accept. But apparently only to give Hannibal time to return to Africa. 
Carthage attempts to cause Romans to recall troops from Scipio by attacking in what is now far northern Italy.  But these forces are defeated.  Hannibal is recalled from Italy by his government.  It was an emotional moment for a man who almost single handedly defeated Rome.
The news made Romans grateful but also apprehensive.  For now one battle would determine all.  Older Senators noted that people generally are slower to appreciate blessings than misfortune.
The envoys from Carthage were not well received by the Senate- they smelled a trick.  (In a way it is sad to think that Fabius died at this time.  He did not get to see the war brought to a successful conclusion. Yet, he had made so many valuable contributions.)
Hannibal returns to Africa with the creme of his army.  Upon his return the war is renewed.  Scipio captures scouts sent to check out Scipio’s army.  They are escorted around camp.  Shown what they had come to see, fed and returned to Hannibal.  Scipio and Hannibal meet.  Negotiations fail.
The battle of Zama was fought in 202 BC.  Scipio rolled back hardened, crack Carthaginian troops.  New terms were offered.  Much harsher than before.
More jockeying to replace Scipio in Africa.  But Scipio’s command was continued.
Livy praises Roman policy via Hasdrubal: Romans had extended their empire not so much by conquest than by sparing the vanquished.
Scipio returned from Africa to a reception like no other.

587. Livy- the War against Hannibal. XXVl-XXVll. - Summary

587.  XXVl-XXVll.  Livy- the War against Hannibal. 
New consuls take office for 211 BC. At this time Rome maintains 25 legions.  The new consuls hold a Senate meeting to assess the state of matters.  A sensitive issue arises.  Lucius Marcius, who had performed remarkable service for the state, sent a letter to the Senate about matters in Spain and signed it: Propraetor.  The Senate was very concerned that this set a bad president if the soldiers elected a commander.  Eventually Publius Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the commanders killed in Spain is sent to command Roman armies there.
Hannibal attacks Romans besieging Capua.  He nearly breaks the Roman lines.  At the same time the Romans had to deal with an attack by those within Capua.  Hannibal according to some sources had a soldier in his army who knew Latin.  He was planted amongst Roman troops to order a retreat.  These tactics do not work.  Hannibal marches on Rome.  His hope is to force Romans to pull troops away from siege of Capua.  Many Senators think it wise to call off the siege.  Quintus Fabius Maximus brings them back to their senses. 
Senate solved the problem this way.  As Hannibal marched on Rome, they decide to leave enough troops to besiege Capua in consideration of how many troops Hannibal would need to attack Rome.  Fulvius the Roman commander of the siege at Capua, advances to Rome.  The Senate decreed that his authority was on par with the consuls to allow him to command troops within city limits.  Hannibal entered via Porta Capena.  To make ready for swift decisions the Senate had full session in the middle of the Forum to be available for consultation.  The area where Hannibal camped was for sale- it sold at normal prices.  Hannibal was frustrated with Roman confidence.
Capua surrenders.  Capuan leaders responsible for the betrayal to Hannibal are put to death.    
Scipio assumes command of Spain. He treats Marcius with great respect and keeps him at his side.
Marcellus returns from victory in Sicily. He is not allowed to celebrate a formal triumph, since the war is not over.  So he celebrates a Triumph on the Alban Mount.  An Ovatio is given in the city.  Carthaginians return to Sicily and this keeps Roman busy there. 
Hannibal is not considered as much of a threat in Italy.  The Senate sends one new consul to Macedonia to take over for Laevinus.  However, this consul becomes ill and returns.  In the next year Laevinus and Marcellus are elected consuls.  Laevinus offers an alliance with the Aetolians.  This is the first time Rome has formed an alliance with a Greek state.  The wording of the document put out feelers for alliance with other rules and governments at the eastern end of the Mediterranean.
Marcellus holds a Senate meeting.  He complains of trumped up charges while he was in command in Sicily.  It seems that Marcellus hit problems head on.  It is interesting that there are no comments discussion, complains about the art which he brought back from Sicily.  This fits in with comments made by Gruen in his book Culture and National Identity in Republican Rome. 
There is much complaint about property loss and much discontent.  apparently loosing battles did not generate love in all allies of Rome.  Rome was to be set on fire by Capuans.  Slaves  reported the matter.  Those involved were arrested.  One can only wonder, if Hannibal was behind this.  Another matter I find fascinating is the difficult Rome faced concerning secrecy of plans when access to Rome from most of Italy was an easy matter.  Plus being Roman was not a matter of race belonging to a city or language.  Must have complicated things a great deal.
Marcellus is assigned Sicily and Laevinus, Italy. 
Sicilians visit houses of Senators and lay complaints against Marcellus.  The matter was soon raised in the Senate.  Consuls agree to switch assignments.
Sicilians given audience in the Senate.  They claim that Marcellus is unreliable and they lament the loss of sacred images.  Laevinus asks the Sicilians when they are done to leave the chamber. Marcellus counters the measure and says,”We generals, waging war on your behalf are expected to accept as our accusers the men we have beaten in battle.”  He gives a vigorous defense of his actions in Syracuse.  He warns the Senate that more is at stake than his command or actions in Sicily. His country is at stake.  Commanders in the future will be less anxious to do their duty from fear of prosecution by a defeated enemy.
In the end the Senate upholds Marcellus’ actions in Sicily.  Senate upheld Fulvius actions concerning Capua, too.  He also had come in for heavy criticism for the way he handled matters there.  Marcellus stiffened their backbone. 
It was decided that the College of Pontiffs were to determine whether the art work was sacred or profane and make sure that art which came from Sicily was properly handled.
The Senate learns that more oarsmen were needed.  Consuls issue an edict.  Private individuals must fund oarsmen for a 30 day period.  There is a strong protest.
Laevinus offers a solution.  Senators should set an example.  They must contribute money.  All other classes follow their example. 
All Sicily is abandoned by Carthage.  Laevinus is successful.
Scipio attacks New Carthage and with the help of his remarkable skills and the wind, he captured the Carthaginian capital in Spain.



XXVll.
In Italy Marcellus defeats a Carthaginian army.  Fulvius is defeated by Hannibal.  Marcellus heads south to deal with Hannibal. Some Latin communities refuse to allow troops to be levied.  The Senate is shocked but other communities came forward.
Marcellus when he encounters Hannibal gives no respite.  Constant harassment, and battles are offered. Tarentum which had been under siege by Q. Fabius Maximus finally fell. in 209 BC. 
In Spain Scipio (son of the Scipio killed there) gains more and more Spanish allies.  His charm, confidence and success made him a force to be reckoned with in several ways.  At Baecula Scipio is victorious.  Hasdrubal escapes with a large army out of Spain.
In Italy Marcellus is under heavy criticism by political enemies.  Tribunes are used to lead the charge.  War the Tribune said was being prolonged to allow Marcellus to keep control, Marcellus was unfit for command. Marcellus successfully defends himself and again is elected consul.
Senate meeting.  There is an argument on what to do with Marcus Livius who had held the citadel of Tarentum for five years until the town itself was recaptured by Fabius.  There was some very heavy political jockeying here.  Which political group would receive credit for this plum?  During the debate Fabius gave one of his famous quips:  “I admit that the recovery of Tarentum was due to Livius, for it could not have been recovered by me, if it had not been first lost.”
In several of the exchanges concerning Marcellus it is reasonably clear that Livy’s sources he used for this decade came from hostile sources where Marcellus was concerned.  During the constant conflict in which Marcellus engaged, he was killed, the other consul who had joined his army to Marcellus’ was wounded.  Marcellus was 60 years old.  I hope that I have his energy when that old.  (Not far off).
Laevinus raided Africa.
Disturbances in Greece kept Romans watchful and concerned.
Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius were elected consuls.  Good timing for both consular armies were leaderless.  Livius was to advance north to stop Hasdrubal.  Nero was to head south and prevent Hannibal from joining his brother.  Livius was at Sena- his camp a mere 500 yards from Hasdrubal.  Nero in the south managed to get Hannibal to withdraw south into Apulia.  Hannibal knew that his brother was coming but did not expect him until summer.  Hasdrubal made it though the Alps with much more speed than expected. 
Hasdrubal sent riders to inform Hannibal that they meet in Umbria.  The riders are captured. Nero upon learning this decided that a new plan was required.  He leaves Quintius Catius in command of the army at Canusium.
Rome was alarmed.  The whole situation seemed to favor Hannibal. Nero, however, selected 6,000 of his best, 1,000 cavalry and heads north.  He covered 250 miles in 7 days.  When he was near Livius advised Nero to enter camp at night and have his men share tents with those of his, Livius’, army. Hasdrubal’s scouts have no idea of the increase in numbers. 
There is talk of giving Nero’s men time to rest.  Nero opposes.  He felt that the advantage of surprise should not be lost.  Nero and Livius move out of camp for battle.  Hasdrubal when he hears the separate signals which indicate the present of two consular armies, decides it is best to find another rout.  He travels along the Metaurus River.  Soon Livius was heavily engaged with Hasdrubal.  Nero sends a group around to the rear of the enemy.  The Carthaginians lost 52,000 men, the Romans lost 8,000. 
Without pause almost Nero rushes south to check Hannibal.  The head of Hasdrubal was tossed into Hannibal’s camp.

586. Livy, The War With Hannibal. Book XXlV- XXV. Translation by Aubrey De Selincourt.- Summary

 586.  Book XXlV- XXV.  Livy, The War With Hannibal.  Translation by Aubrey De Selincourt.
Bruttians (near heel of Italy) join Hannibal.  The Greeks in southern Italy continue to support Rome.  This area was politically and socially complex.  Carthage wanted to use Bruttians against Rome but to do so the Carthaginians had to find a way to allow Bruttians to sack Greek cities in southern Italy.  Most of these were allied with Rome but Hannibal hoped to get these on his side too.  Hard to do if he is helping Bruttians sack Greek cities.  Plus these cities appear at this time to still be separate entities.  Any concept of common culture and purpose seems to have eluded them at this point.  Hannibal could use ports in southern Italy.  At the moment these were allies of Rome.
Hiero, king of Syracuse, dies.  His son becomes an ally of Hannibal. Sicily is a must hold for the Romans.  Sicily supplies grain in large amounts and is strategic for keeping Carthaginians from crossing directly from Carthage to Italy.
Romans hold elections.  Consuls elected.  One had a poor record.  Quintus Fabius Maximus, as presiding officer, asks the centuries to vote again.  Marcellus and Fabius are elected.  It is clear that Fabius was an ambitious politician but it is also clear that he did not want another  Cannae.
Hannibal needs Tarentum and its port to allows supplies and troops from Philip.  The Romans manage to prevent the loss of Tarentum.   Marcellus defeats Hannibal at Nola. Fabius was busy besieging Casilinum. Fabius wants to lift siege since  Casilinum is not that strategic.  Marcellus agrees about its lack of strategic importance but suggests that dropping the siege would send wrong message to too many people.  Casilinum falls. War is expected soon in Sicily.  Marcellus prepares. 
Marcellus arrives at Syracuse at height of political unrest.  There is hot competition for the throne.  Marcellus offers renewal of old treaty. Syracuse refuses.  Marcellus begins the siege. Marcellus skillfully nullifies Carthaginian forces in Sicily and at the same time continues working of Syracuse. 
214 BC. War with Philip.  Marcus Valerius Laevinus at Brundisium (port faces northern Greece) learns that Philip is attacking Oricum which he will use a base for departure to Italy.  Laevinus stops Philip. 
In Spain matters heat up.  The Scipios have been penetrating further and further into Spain.  The two brothers worked well together.  Once Gnaeus was wounded in the thigh.  In the next battle he was carried into battle on a stretcher.  One tough fellow.  Reminds me of my buddy Stonewall Jackson.  Carthaginian reinforcements are defeated.  Rome finally recovers Saguntum fours years after the war began.
Elections are held.  Rome now maintains armies in Spain, Sicily, Macedonia, Italy. 
Scipios success in Spain gains Syphax as an ally.  Soon Syphax is defeated by new ally of Carthage, Masinissa.  Romans employ their first mercenaries, the Celitberians.  It must have seemed like a never ending struggle for Rome with no end in sight.
Book XXV.
As the war dragged on, people began to look to other forms of religious rites for dealing with crisis.  In the elections of 212, the Romans did the same thing to adjust to an unusual situation, they assigned one Praetor to handle all court cases and the other was assigned to command an army. As of this year the Romans had 23 legions in the field.  They were having trouble meeting recruit requirements, so they lowered the age requirement.
Certain business people concocted a plan to bilk the government of money while of course filling their own.  They would take a worthless ship load it with worthless material but on the ledger it was full of valuables.  Then they would take it out to sea, sink it and then claim the loss.
The loyalty of the Campanian district was suspect at best.  Some kept Hannibal informed of troop movements. The Senate sponsored an army with their own cash.  It was formed by a centurion.  The army was caught, mauled and cut to pieces by Hannibal. Hannibal lured a Roman commander into a trap and killed 16,000 Roman soldiers.
Consuls carry on conflict around Capua.  Hannibal works to take Beneventum- fails,  tries Tarentum- fails. Capua asked Hannibal for assistance, Hannibal refuses as he is tied up in southern Italy.  I do not know if this was by intent by the Romans or a windfall which gave a sigh of relief.
Marcellus is busy in Sicily.  Syracuse must be taken.  Syracuse is the key to Sicily.  Tarentum, Beneventum must be held to keep Philip out of Italy.  Capua must be punished.  It was once a loyal ally, and its nearness to Rome makes the punishment of the city paramount.
Chance tipped the scales in Syracuse.  An envoy from Syracuse to Philip was caught by the Romans.  Negotiations take place for his exchange.  A Roman who was part of the exchange process had the presence of mind to count the bricks which composed the wall.  Romans built ladders to match, waited for a festival to take place and broke into the city.  Soon Marcellus led the entire army in.  Marcellus designs the assault to help reduce destruction of property.  While all of this is in progress, reinforcements arrive from Carthage.  Marcellus defeats these too.  But a plague breaks out which affects both armies.  Marcellus contends with this too.  More reinforcements arrive and Marcellus defeats these too. A Carthaginian fleet arrives, when they see the situation in Syracuse, they proceed to Tarentum.   The city was plundered.  The royal treasury was protected.  During the course of the sack Archimedes was killed.  Marcellus grieved.  He made sure that Marcellus was given proper burial.
In Spain after success, the Scipio brothers decide that it is time to take the offensive, since their goal had been achieved- keep Hasdrubal out of Italy.  Now they decide it is time to end Carthaginian presence in Spain.  Brothers split the Roman army.  But in separate battles both armies are defeated and both die in battle.
At this point it appeared that all which had been gained in Spain was lost.  However Lucius Marcius formed an army from the remnants and joined Fonteius who had been left in main camp.  Both cross the Ebro and take up position.  Carthaginians come to finish them off. Marcius beats them off. But cleverly prevents Romans from pursuit.  Carthaginians figure the Romans are exhausted and afraid. Thus the Carthaginians return to their camp in disorder. Marcius’ plan was to attack this army before two Carthaginian armies arrive to support.  Marcius overruns both camps.  Clear victory.  Carthaginians abandon plan to cross the Ebro.  All historians agree that Marcius performed great service during tis crisis.
Marcellus removed to Rome numerous paintings, statues.  Marcellus clears Sicily of Carthaginians.  He is victorious.

585. Livy Book XXII and XXlll (The War with Hannibal)- Summary

585.  Livy Book XXII and XXlll (The War with Hannibal). Hannibal crosses the Arno River.  Flaminius was certain that he could bring a swift end to Hannibal’s intentions.  Hannibal did his homework.  He learned of the arrogance of Flaminius.  He intended to put it to good use. The other consul, Servilius, was more than willing to cooperate.  Flaminius’ advisors urged him to wait for the arrival of Servilius but Flaminius was sure that he had Hannibal right where he wanted him. 
Hannibal puts his main army in view of Flaminius. The rest of his army was hidden.  Flaminius attacks.  He falls into a trap. The battle raged for three hours.  Flaminius is killed.  Romans panic.  15,000 dead, 10,000 scattered.  Hannibal lost 2,500 killed.
In Rome the Praetor Marcus Pomponius announced, “We have been beaten in a great battle.”  Families were in anguish over fate of family members in the army.  Praetors held 24 hour Senate meeting to make plans to meet the crisis.  More bad news follows during the Senate marathon.- those reinforcements that the Romans had sent to reinforce Flaminius were also destroyed. 
The Senate decides to appoint a Dictator ( a 6 month position during the Republic).  There was a legal problem- Servilius, the surviving Consul was needed to nominate the Dictator.  But there was no way he could leave the field of battle.  Quintius Fabius Maximus was the first Dictator appointed ‘acting’ dictator.  His Master of Horse (second in Command) was Marcus Minucius Rufus.  Maximus assumed command of the army on one of the darkest days of the war.  The defense of Italy had failed.  The war had not been kept out of Italy. 
Maximus in contrast to Flaminius performed his religious duties with care.  He summoned the Senate to decide what to do. The Senate decided to hold a new levy of soldiers.  Undefended town were ordered to take cover.  People in open land were ordered to leave.  All unused crops were to be destroyed.
Needless to say the policy of Maximus was not popular.  He knew this but understood what they did not that Rome needed a breathing space.  He also knew that Hannibal could not be left unopposed.  He successfully blocked passes and made movement difficult for Hannibal.  Hannibal hoping to collect on his recent destruction of a Roman army hoped to destroy another.  He offered Maximus battle.  Maximus held his troops in check.
It is clear that Hannibal’s troops were more adaptable than Roman troops.  Perhaps knowledge of this helped to generate the plan Maximus formed to deal with Hannibal.
Gnaeus Scipio who had been left in Spain by his brother Publius achieves success against Carthaginians.  Soon Publius arrives in Spain.
In Italy it appears that Hannibal quickly realized that Maximus had formulated a long term plan to deal with Hannibal.  This put dampers on Hannibal’s desire for rapid and decisive engagements.  Hannibal also knew that Maximus was heavily criticized at Rome.  Hannibal was ever ready to try any device to lure Maximus to take the offense.  Hannibal learned that Maximus owned a large estate near by.  Hannibal proceeds to lay waste all surrounding land but that of Maximus.  Hannibal hoped to use this t spread the idea Maximus was somehow in a secret pact with Hannibal.  Maximus, no dolt, realized Hannibal’s plan, sold his land and used the money to pay for the exchange of soldiers captured by Hannibal.
Minucius, Maximus’ second in command, declared in a note sent to the Senate that he had achieved great success against Hannibal.  Everyone was elated except Maximus.  He doubted the accuracy of the letter.  A Tribune fumed that Maximus seemed to be looking for ways to drag the war on for his own benefit. Minucius publicly criticized Maximus. It is suggested in the Senate to make the Master of Horse and Dictator of equal authority.  Minucius claimed that Maximus was prolonging the war.  He was protecting his property at the expense of others. No one of substance would make such a proposal.  But Marcus Terentius Varro did propose the measure.  He saw that it had popular support and hoped thereby to launch his own career.  The motion passed. 
Maximus probably added to his own unpopularity when he refused to allow Minucius to have command of the army on alternate days.  So Maximus split the army.   Good news for Hannibal for he knew that it would be far more difficult for Maximus to carry out his long term plan.  Minucius was a loose cannon.
Hannibal soon lures Minucius into a trap.  His destruction was prevented by Maximus. Livy says that after this Minucius became loyal to Maximus.  Maybe but Maximus was a politician (I do not mean this in a negative way) he may have had means now to force Minucius to look at matters in another light. Regardless Maximus now commands a recombined army.
The election of Maximus by popular vote was an adjustment which served in a way as a test of the Republic to see if Roman government could adjust to situations which it had never met before.  The surviving consul after Trasimene could not be in Rome to publicly announce his nominee.  Thus the Senate decided to have Maximus elected Dictator by popular vote. 
At this time, 216 B.C., a Carthaginian spy was captured. He had worked undetected for two years.
The Senate not with ease kept up normal activities required to keep society functional. The elections this year were bitter.  Varro sought popular support.  By leading members of the Senate he was opposed.  He fired back that Senate wanted the war and were actually instrumental in importing Hannibal to Italy.  They were using the war to maintain power.  Only one consul was elected- Varro.  He presided over election of the other consul.  Those families which were the major force in the Senate realized that the candidates they had backed were not strong enough to defeat Varro.  So they asked Lucius Aemilius Paullus to run.  He did not want to but they convinced that the political crisis required his candidacy.  He ran, he won. The size of the army was increased to 87,200 at this time.
Hiero, loyal king of Syracuse sent supplies to Romans and art. 
Varro spoke publicly against the quality of Senatorial leadership.  He did this several times.  Hannibal’s spies must have been elated by the words.  Paullus, however, spoke only once.  He questioned Varro’s good sense.  I like Paullus.  Maximus advised Paullus to stick to his, Maximus’, strategy.  Maximus knew that Hannibal’s main weakness was his difficult in getting supplies and reinforcements in a foreign land.  Paullus agreed but told Maximus that even as Dictator he had great difficulty in getting his plan put into action..  “True glory” said Maximus “will belong to the man who despises glory.”  
   The Consuls argue.  The army moves to Cannae. The Romans suffer their greatest defeat in their long history. They lost in one day 45,500 infantry, 2,700 cavalry, 2 quaestors, 29 military tribunes and numerous ex-consuls.  Livy describes the bloody field in chapter 51..  It is beyond imagination.
The news devastated Rome.  Two armies (both consular armies) destroyed.  A Praetor summoned the Senate in the Curia Hostilia.  Maximus kept a cool head.  (Where do people like this come from?)  He convinced the Senate to reconnoiter the countryside, calm the city and no one can leave the city.  Then the Senate was recalled to make plans for defense. 
Ironically, Paullus who was opposed to the battle was killed in that conflict; Varro who was rash almost beyond belief, in fact to promote his own career, he had put his own country at risk.  In Varro’s report, 10,000 soldiers survive.  News soon arrives that Hiero in Sicily was under attack.  Marcus Claudius Marcellus was sent to take command of Varro’s forces.  A Dictator was selected by the Senate, a levy was held and slaves were offered freedom if they agree to serve in the army. 
Those soldiers who had been captured by Hannibal asked the Senate to pay the ransom which Hannibal required for their release.  Titus Manlius Torquatus made reply- they had weapons, they should have fought and died.  No ransom was paid.  Much wailing in the city.  Many Senators with their vote condemned their own relatives.  Some allies now desert Rome.  In spite of how many Senators must have felt about Varro, the entire Senate met him at the city gates of Rome and thanked him for not despairing of the state.  Noble sentiment desperately need in time of crisis.

XXlll. Capua falls to Hannibal.  Or perhaps turned itself over to him.  Livy states that Hanno continued opposition to the war back in Carthage.  He asked if after the Romans have been crushed so heavily if they have yet to ask for peace.  Livy adds very little. It would be nice to know more.
Money is tight for Romans.  A city asked for help.  Rome simply did not have the money which would be required to launch any kind of campaign.  In Sicily the Roman commander had to ask the King of Syracuse (Hiero) for a loan.  In Sardinia the citizens donated money.
Numbers in the Senate were way down.  Not because of lack of interest.  Natural death, war casualties took a heavy toll.  A Dictator was appointed to raise the number.  170 new Senators were enrolled.  It is important to realize that the Senate was a source of expertise on foreign affairs, finance, military commands and a think tank on a major scale. 
Lucius Postumius was elected consul.  He and almost his entire army were annihilated in Gaul. Shops were closed.  Depression set in.  Senate met and it was decided that the Aediles would go about the city and order shops to reopen.
In 216 BC there was Roman success in Spain.  Carthage was having difficulty in subduing Spanish tribes.  The Carthaginian commander in Spain, Hasdrubal, was ordered by Carthage to proceed to Italy.  He remarked that he could not.  If he left all of Spain would soon be in Roman hands.
When the Romans learned that Hasdrubal was ordered to Italy, they made the Ebro River their base of operations.  Orders were clear- Hasdrubal must be prevented from crossing the Ebro no matter what the cost.  Scipios achieve success in Spain.   A number of Spanish tribes move to the Roman side.  As a result Hasdrubal could not go to Italy.
In Italy matters worsened. Roman support was ebbing. Romans lost some key supporters.  Hiero, ruler of Syracuse died.  His son wanted to support Carthaginians.  Thus the durable support of Sicily was lost. 
The situation in Italy was critical.  The Carthaginians ordered Mago to Italy to reinforce Hannibal.  Roman success in Spain caused him to be sent to Spain instead.
The war now draws the attention of Philip of Macedon, a king with extensive dominions.  He decided to support Hannibal.  Ambassadors are sent to Hannibal.  These were captured by the Romans.  But Laevinus, the Roman commander of the east coast was convinced by Xenophanes, one of the Ambassadors that they were attempting to avoid Carthaginian forces.  Laevinus sends them on to Rome.  Instead they head for Hannibal and offer an alliance.  This was the offer.  Philip would help Hannibal with his fleet and then after Romans were crushed, Hannibal would help Philip expand in Greece.  This was a crucial juncture in the war.  With Philip’s help Rome and her allies could face irreversible disaster.
Xenophanes, the representative of Philip and three Carthaginian representatives, Gisgo, Bostar and Mago left to make final arrangements with Philip.  All are captured.  Xenophanes used the same lie as last time.  However Romans wondered what an Ambassador of Philip was doing with Carthaginian representatives.  Laevinus wisely sent all these to Rome in separate ships.  Later letters were found which helped to expose the deal.  This whole affair must have caused great concern to the Roman Senate.
Sardinia is on the verge of revolt.  Carthaginian agents had been working hard to bring over the island.  Romans send T. Manlius Torquatus to Sardinia.  At the same time the Carthaginians were sending Hasdrubal to Sardinia.
Campania was primed by Hannibal to revolt from Rome. Romans are alert and the crisis is averted.
The Senate after hearing what the Ambassadors/ documents had to say made the momentous decision to go on the offensive and thus keep Philip out of Italy.  Philip is made aware that the Romans know his plan.  He sends a second Embassy.  Treaty is concluded.  But by this time, winter has set in, no campaign can be launched by Philip until after winter storms are over. This war was postponed because of the capture of one ship. Luck?  Or did the Romans have a spy network in place?
Romans are completely successful in Sardinia.  No quarter was given.
A Roman naval commander was ravaging Carthaginian coast.  Moved to Sardinia and participated in action regarding Sardinia.  Marcellus was successful against Hannibal at Nola.  Soon Laevinus was sent to Brundisium to make preparations for invasion of Macedonia.  The Scipios did well in Spain.  When low on money, the Senate borrowed money and the Scipios’ success in Spain continued.

584. Livy, The War With Hannibal. Book XXI. Translation by Aubrey De Selincourt.- Summary

584.   Book XXI.  Livy, The War With Hannibal.  Translation by Aubrey De Selincourt.
Livy wrote an extensive history of Rome.  The portion which deals with the 2nd Punic War or 2nd Carthaginian War or the War against Hannibal begins with Book XXI.
I read these books on the Hannibalic Wars because I was curious to see if the leaders of the Roman Republic faced opposition to the war itself, challenges to the handling of the war and charges of mismanagement.  The war was protracted, difficult and full of peril.  Did matters flow smoothly?  Was agreement on policy universal and united?  How did politics and the pursuit of office fit into the war with Carthage?
XXI.  Livy states at the outset that this was a most memorable war. Both Rome and her allies and the Carthaginians were at their peak of power.  Both had learned each others tactics in the Ist Punic War (264-242 BC).
Livy records, whether true or not that Hannibal’s father lead 9 year old Hannibal to the altar and had him swear eternal hatred toward Rome. After the Ist Punic War which Carthage lost Hamilcar, the father of Hannibal spent 9 years expanding Carthaginian territory in Spain. Livy states that this expansion was intended to lead to greater enterprises.  However, Hamilcar died prematurely.  Hannibal was too young to command.  He did become commander a few years later when the Carthaginian command in Spain was murdered.  There was opposition to the by members of the home government in Carthage but it apparently led nowhere. Before Hannibal became the commander, the Romans negotiated and reconfirmed the Ebro as border north of which was off limits to Carthage.  A city south of this river, Saguntum was to remain neutral. This was designed to function as a buffer state.
Hannibal as new commander forms a design on Saguntum.  To deflect suspicion that his target was Saguntum Hannibal made war with neighbors of the city.  Soon Saguntum grew suspicious and sent an Embassy to Rome.  An Embassy is sent by the Romans to Spain.  To the surprise of Rome, Hannibal attacks Saguntum.  The Roman Senate debates courses of action.  There are three choices:
1.  attack Hannibal in Spain
2.  Await the return of the Embassy
3.  Assign one consul to lead an army to Spain and the other to Africa.
Interestingly the Senate decided to wait for the return of the Embassy.  Hannibal besieges the city and Saguntum responds with vigor.  With enough vigor that Hannibal is wounded during the siege.  In the meantime the Roman Embassy returns.  Hannibal stalls the Embassy to give himself time to heal and push on with the siege. The Roman Embassy realizes that a stall is in play and sails on to Carthage.  Hannibal sends a message to stall them there.  Hanno, a Carthaginian, believes that the war Hannibal is creating is a major blunder for Carthage.  He is ignored.  During this time negotiations eat up a great deal of time.  While shuttling back and forth Hannibal tightens up the siege of Saguntum.  Siege grows more and more vicious.
Just about the time that the Roman Embassy returned to Rome, Saguntum falls.  Romans were shocked, ashamed and angry.  Roman prestige hit new lows.
The Roman Senate acts.  Publius Cornelius Scipio (this is the father of the famous Scipio), one of the consuls, is sent to Spain.  Tiberius Sempronius Longus was ordered to Africa.  There were at this time 6 legions with 4,000 soldiers each, allies numbered at 40,000, 4,400 cavalry and 220 warships.  The assembled Romans declare war.  Roman Senate sends a delegation to Carthage. No agreement can be reached.  War is declared.
Rome seeks allies in Spain.  Why should we depend upon you when you allowed Saguntum to be destroyed? Roman envoys were mocked by Gauls (southern France) when asked to stop Hannibal from marching through France.  Hannibal had already payed a large sum to pass through unhindered.
Hannibal leaves Hasdrubal, brother, in charge of Spain.  He heads for Italy.  An advance army had already been sent to secure his route through Italy.  The Gauls in northern Italy revolt against Rome.  Now Rome must fight Carthage and the Gauls. Scipio sends his brother Gnaeus with part of the army into Spain to prevent reinforcements.  He raises new army combined with his own to confront Hannibal in northern Italy. Hannibal is so intent on entering Italy with speed that he refuses to be slowed down by troops of Scipio sent to engage him.  Hannibal crosses the Alps. Scipio was 3 days late with his army to engage with full force.
Gauls supply Hannibal with needs at base of the Alps. Publius Scipio hurries to engage Hannibal before he has time to recoup. He meets Hannibal at the Ticinus River.  P. Scipio was wounded and saved by his son. Scipio crosses south of the Ticinus River and waits for Sempronius.  Remember that he had been sent to Africa.  When Hannibal gave the slip to the Roman army Sempronius was hastily recalled and sent north. At the Trebia River, Hannibal defeats the combined Roman army.  Everything which could go wrong did.  Rash advance, cold weather, swollen river, food supplies failed, Roman army became divided.  However, some comfort may have been derived from the fact that Hannibal’s army was too exhausted to prevent Scipio from crossing the river.
Elections are held in Rome.  New consuls: Gnaeus Servilius and Gaius Flaminius.  The country side was so chaotic that supplies had to brought by boat on the Po River.
Gnaeus Scipio meets Carthaginian commander north of the Ebro and defeats.  He and the other Carthaginian commander withdraw south of the Ebro. (Carthaginians north of the Ebro must have sent chills down the spines of Romans.  North of the Ebro meant that it was even easier to send reinforcements to Hannibal.)
Flaminius, the new consul, had circumvented to authority of the Senate on a number of occasions.  He was adept at seeking and using the weight of popular authority. Knowing that he was disliked by members of the Senate, he worried that his political enemies would find a way to prevent him from taking command of the army.  To do so meant that he had to neglect his religious duties, deceive the Senate and secretly sneak out to take command. The Senate voted to have him come back to Rome, but he refused.   

610. Empires of Trust by Madden.- Summary

610.  Empires of Trust by Madden.  I have learned so much from this book.  Interestingly I have learned a great deal about both the Romans and the United States.  He corrects the view of those who use circumstances and problems of the late imperial period and apply those to circumstances here in the USA.  Our economy is very strong.  We have a GDP of 14 Trillion dollars per year.  By the late Roman Imperial period their economy was in shambles and the military as powerful as it was worked under constant pressure.  Our military is the most powerful in the history of the world.  One fact should make this clear.  All the navies of the entire world combined are very small and do not equal the US Navy.
The last statement demands explanation.  Why in heavens sake should we or do we have armed forces so powerful, so overwhelming that no country could possibly threaten us? The answer to this takes us to the Romans.
But which period of Roman history?  That history of the Roman Republic from 300 BC to 150 BC.  And this forces the discussion to the make-up and character of the Roman people.  His assessment is this.  Romans ended the monarchy and set up the Republic.  A very healthy respect for the dangers of kingship stuck with them for centuries.  Romans were primarily farmers in the beginning and even after they became wealthy and powerful and not necessarily farmers, that aspect of life was always admired and revered.  Romans revered private property and held it practically sacred. A sense of isolation was sought out and desired by each family. This is emphasized in their strong sense of property lines and sanctity of ownership.  A strong sense of community developed which protected this right to privacy.  Romans as a people extended this to dealings with others.  The only reason they became involved with neighbors or foreign powers was because they came under attack or their security was threatened.  There are some strong connections between the Roman reliance on family and strong moral values and a friendly division between what is mine and what is yours. We also chucked out a king.  We also want to be left alone.  We also highly regard thrift, hard work and a healthy respect for agricultural pursuits.  There is an easy test for this.  No politician would stand a chance running for president in this country whose platform marked agriculture as insignificant or meaningless.
Romans are often viewed by the uninformed as warmongers.  Look at that huge Empire they put together.  Huge even by modern standards.  They had a master plan.  The only explanation shout those who hold up the Romans to ridicule and shame is that conquest was ever on the mind of Romans. Those who say such things fail to realize that that master plan took 300 years.  Some master plan.  The actual story is more subtle and useful for us.
If you need numerous example, you will need to read the book.  I will give one brief example here.  The Romans fought three wars against Carthage.  These are called the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Punic Wars.  In the 2nd Punic War Hannibal, a Carthaginian commander invaded Italy.  He had thundering success against the Romans.  During the war the Romans learned that Hannibal sought an alliance with the King of Macedonia.  Macedonia was only a few miles away from the eastern side of Italy.  When the Romans learned of the planned alliance, they sent an army to prevent it.  The army did not remain.  The Romans departed when the 2nd Punic War ended in 202 BC.   After the 2nd Punic War in 200 BC, cities in Greece fearful of attack by the kingdom of Macedonia asked for assistance from the Romans.  The Romans came, pushed back the king of Macedonia and then withdrew all of their forces in 197 BC.  Later in 172  BC again allies asked for assistance.  Rome sent an army.  Defeated the aggressor and again returned to Italy in 168 BC.  All forces were removed.  In 148 BC war came again, Rome sent an army.  This time they left security forces to prevent further wars.
If the Romans were lovers of conquest, they never would have left the first time.  The empire Roman made was not an empire of conquest but an empire gained in spite of their desires.  In fact alliances were made, wars were fought primarily because the Romans wished to be left alone.  Yes, they made mistakes.  They did sometimes what they should not do.  The empire came about because making an alliance with Romans meant something.  It meant that they would support and help when called.  It meant that agreements meant something and that Romans would stand by them.  Roman power could be trusted.  Romans had an empire of trust.
Macedonia and other events taught the Romans something which they never forgot.  Wars will cease, if they become so powerful that no one can oppose them or threaten their survival. By the end of the 3rd Punic War, Roman armies were invincible.  Madden claims that in a way the Pax Romana began here.  He may be too optimistic.  But he has a point. 
Romans too had allies who constantly complained about Romans being overbearing, unfair, discourteous and negligent.  Madden suggests that the very fact that allies could complain and send embassies bring loads of grips and complaints indicates that Romans knew restraint and practiced it diligently.
We need a parallel here.  World War I came along.  It took us a long time to decide to enter the war.  It came after a German sub sank a ship with Americans on it.  We entered the war.  Germany was defeated.   Every single US soldier came home.  If we wanted an empire of conquest, that was the moment to assert ourselves.  We came home.  World War II came.  We were attacked.  We entered the war.  This time we fought the war on two, some would say three major fronts.  This time we stayed.  But true to US characteristic, we formed an alliance- NATO.
The United States and the Roman Republic appear to have made a decision that peace could only be made by maintaining a force so superior that no country or power could resist.  This was/has been coupled with a sense of restraint and responsible use of power which made/has made the Roman Republic and the US desirable allies.
Only two empires of trust have existed so far in the history of the world:  The Roman Empire and the American Empire.

541. The Trial of Jesus by Allen Watson- Summary

541.  The Trial of Jesus by Allen Watson- This book makes for fascinating reading.  Watson is a scholar of Classical Roman Law.  His perspective on the trial of Jesus deserves great respect.  Jesus according to the evidence Watson presents sought to unseat the Pharisees and Sadducees as religious and cultural leaders of the Jews.  He opposed the concept that form or procedure takes precedence over faith and intent.  This was very much contrary to Jewish system.  Consequently he sought confrontation with Jewish guardians of religious practice.  He possessed characteristics of charismatic leaders:  only way to salvation is via faith in him, he separated his followers from their families. i.e.- Luke 14.26 Whoever comes to me and does not hate their father, mother, wife, children brother and sister yes and even life itself cannot be my disciple.  Such a leader performs miracles, his/her message is couched in high rhetoric- in fact it almost verges on the incomprehensible, challenges established institutions etc.  Jesus provoked his own death.  He attacked the power base of Pharisees but  he needed to provoke Sadducees.  They had the power to condemn by stoning.  But due to a technicality the court of Sadducees could not punish but evidently felt he was guilty and handed him over to Romans on charges of sedition.  Thus Jesus’ remark while on the cross:  Oh God why have you forsaken me?

540. The Reign of Tiberius by Frank B. Marsh- Summary

540.  The Reign of Tiberius by Frank B. Marsh-  This scholar does a fine job of detailing where Tacitus goes wrong.  As far as Tacitus was concerned, character was immutable.  Consequently, if someone exhibits certain qualities later in life these characteristics must have been present earlier in life.  His sources are almost senatorial exclusively, Tacitus had little knowledge of economics and he allowed his hatred of Domitian to color his analysis of Tiberius.  Thus any flaw Tiberius displayed later in life must have been concealed in his early life.  All one had to do was look for hints of nasty behavior in Tiberius’ early career.  If this is not found, then the conclusion is that Tiberius successfully concealed his true nature.

Case in point-  Tacitus has great praise for Germanicus.  Yet the record shows that he was not a leader of high quality and Tiberius was faced with the daunting task of covering for Germanicus.  Publicly Tiberius did not criticize Germanic.  Tacitus interprets all of this as Tiberius’ latent jealousy of Germanicus. Tiberius did not think that the empire should be expanded.  In fact the origin of Augustus’ policy of not expanding the empire may have been that of Tiberius.  Germanicus did not subscribe to this policy.  If Tiberius was correct in his assessment that the empire could not afford more war, then Tiberius had his hands full dealing with Germanicus who was popular. According to what Tiberius understood about the sources of the empire the policy of any expansion was dangerous.

Marsh also discusses the trials during the reign of Tiberius.  With close examination it becomes clear that Tiberius was tolerant and tried to be as “republican” as possible in his dealing with the Senate.  When ever possible he used diplomacy instead of the army to solve problems on the borders.  He balanced the budget, he reduced taxes whenever possible, he curtailed public shows. In fact the source of hostility in senatorial histories may stem from the fact that they lacked Tiberius’ comprehensive view of the needs of the empire.   Tiberius was frugal and relentlessly sought the interests of the empire.  Interestingly, contemporary writers do not even hint that Tiberius was a monster.  Tacitus is a great writer and an important historian but the power of his pen must not be allowed to blacken the record of Tiberius.  Food for thought in modern times.

539. A Chronicle of the Last Pagans by Chuvin- Summary

539.  A Chronicle of the Last Pagans   - Theodosius I, November 8, 392 AD issued an edict:  no one is permitted to sacrifice an innocent victim, nor to worship one’s Lares with fire, one’s genius with uncut vine, one’s Penates with perfume, to light lamps with incense or hang garlands.  This is the tone of the rest of the book.  It is a sad chronicle of Christians of the time using their power to eliminate Paganism.  This was not easy since pagans were well educated and Paganism was vibrant and very much alive.  The idea that there are many ways by which one may come to an understanding of the divine being was nonexistent.  I found this book hard to read because it made me sad to read how another culture was crushed because there was only one way to view the world. Religious intolerance is still with us; something which was pretty much nonexistent in antiquity.  This should give us pause.

536. Memoirs of Hadrian by Marguerite Yourcenar- Summary

536.  Memoirs of Hadrian by Marguerite Yourcenar- Sometimes a novel is a fine way to approach an historical figure.  The author wrote this in French but her friend translated it into English.  The English is very impressive.  There are numerous times where the prose approaches poetry.  Yet it never descends into silliness.  The quality of the writing adds so much depth of feeling to her words that greater mileage is derived from fewer words.  The Memoirs begin with Hadrian near the end of life passing advice to Marcus Aurelius.   Keep in mind that Antoninus Pius followed Hadrian as Emperor.  Hadrian managed to extend his influence beyond the grave by arranging to have Pius adopt Marcus and have him succeed upon his, Pius’ death.

Anyway Hadrian looks back on his life with few regrets.  His acts of savagery are set in the cultured atmosphere of his times.  I am reminded of what I once read in a book by Michael Grant- great men ( I am sure that I paraphrase) by nature are bad men- by this he meant that the very nature of leadership entails the making of what to an ordinary person appear to be harsh or even cruel decisions.  He realizes the impact he has had upon the direction of the empire.  The author is weak in the area of architecture but in all fairness she had not had the advantage of modern scholarship on the subject which has dramatically changed views on Roman architecture and its place in the history of architecture.  Hadrian’s zest for life and the active life come across very well and his desire to bring the empire together so to speak.  This is not an easy book to read but well worth the trip.  In fact this would be a fine book to read before departure for Rome.