600 sheep died when volcano erupted in one herd.When facing Mt Vesuvius the Lattar Mts are behind you.
In the basilica- trials, banking, market took place. Measurement standards are next to temple of Apollo- the Romans used the samnite stone- altered to meet their own system.
The palaestra and amphitheater are at opposite end to keep crowds down for busy forum area
Much of life was outdoors. As Via dell Abbondanza moves toward amphitheater- the street widens to form a mini piazza. The area was probably roofed over. Most streets were narrow for a reason- shade, break the cold winds.
Heavily traveled streets had porticos.What to do when it rains?- at first, the cisterns were closed and the initial water drained into the streets- this cleaned the streets- hence need for stepping stones. When roof had been clean and water was clean coming off of the roof- the cistern was opened and filled the cistern.
A proper tour of Pompeii should begin at train station.- point out shops, awnings- these would have been much like those of ancient Pompeii- this is my idea.
At crossroads thought out the city were fountains and shrines. Hawkers everywhere in the forum. Gossip exchanged at fountains.
Facilities for entertainment and recreation far exceed those of any modern town of comparable size. eg- amphitheater capacity held 3 times as many people as what lived in Pompeii. One theater- the larger one- held 5,000 people- that is almost the entire population of the city. 3 large open air swimming pools, 3 baths. This gives an idea of how large the population was in surrounding areas.
Wool was a big business here:
12 officinae lanifricariae
11 fullonicae
6 officinae tinctoriae
4 officiniae coatiliariae
6 tertrinae
partly due to Feb 5 62 earthquake- many old house had been converted to shops- the wealthy were moving to the suburbs
Outside the Porta di Stabia- huge tannery
35 pistoria
shops with stepped shelves were wine shops
dolia- vases buried ion counter held lentils, nuts, cereals
at portas di nucera- large lamp factory
Garden- not from Greeks- Roman had strong interest in gardens for a very long time. Part of early Italic home. House of the Surgeon- 300-400 BC the oldest. Pompeians relied on well water and cisterns until Augustus had an aqueduct built. To emphasize above point- Greeks had a peristyle- but it was a paved floor- Romans put a garden in it. Some houses were huge- House of Pansa- whole city block, another old Samnite house.
Jashemski discovered gardens, parks, vineyards, orchards, vegetable plots inside the city. There are 450 plus house gardens alone. Plants were something that all Romans enjoyed. House of Polybius- first house excavated with new methods. Large trees accompanied by informal plantings, props for trees heavy with produce, ladder founder for harvest. Peristyle gardens had formal plantings. Trees in the corners, if large enough even when a house was converted to commercial use- the gardens remained. Plants were for appearance, attraction of animals and food.
In the house of D. Octavius Quartius- aedicula behind biclinium had telemon statue- a support which held up the fountain.
edge of stream at upper level had sculpture- lions, hound attacking a hare, little boy clasping a serpent, tiny herm, tiny sphinx, a head of a river god.
between pillars- Polyhymnia, Mnemosyne.
Below water jet fountain- is a nymphaeum- there was a small seated puttee holding a comic mask. east edge of garden had 44 amphorae unbroken- for wine?
small houses had gardens too.
Horace mentions "nursing trees amid your varied columns"
aqueduct waters allowed fountains and pools- these caused gardens to become more formal
the rose, lily and violets were the most popular
old style had larges trees, shrubs and plants- new gardens had fountains, statues- these required curtains to control heat.
Garden paintings were not highly regarded. So many left to decay. Garden painting were often visible from the front door.
Paintings heavily used by poor people to make garden area look bigger. Romans were very fond of herbs.
Bones of a donkey found in house- during eruption it may have run inside for shelter.- there it died.
Clients made calls on patrons at daybreak. There are seats outside many houses where clients waited their turn. In antiquity, the houses of the wealthy were open to the public in many ways.
To archeologists the house of the poor held no interest. Until Jashemski.
House of Venus Marina has many interesting paintings.
There is evidence that the owner of this house loved gardens more than living quarters- after earthquake-which was very severe- garden area were repaired first.
Painted garden scenes were a continuation of the real garden- e.g a painted fountain pours water into a real gutter.
Large wild animals were made to look part of a garden.
These paintings reflect wide range of response to nature- beauty, awe, gander, ferocity, beauty of movement.
Paradeisos on huge estates were mimicked by paintings by those who could not afford the real thing.
Animals are often same pose in different houses- artists brought sketch books to sell their skill.
Garden paintings are common in tombs.
Even in room where gardens are not possible there are paintings of gardens.
A painting survey showed- all have fences, fountains, birds and plants.
Sacro-idyllic paintings were popular- and villa landscapes- these apparently were developed by Romans- a fellow named Spurius Studius. Garden paintings reflect Roman love of gardens.
In the winter the family was by the hearth, in summer- outside. Breakfast and lunch were small affairs- cena was at 3 PM- in the garden. Mattresses, pillows were used. Triclinium was often under an arbor or tent- children sat in the open U.
House of Silver Wedding- Samnite. Dining areas looked on to a vegetable garden- this what Romans liked. A garden of this house would have had: onions, lettuce, beets, artichokes, cauliflower, peas, beans, herbs and flowers for decoration. Fruit and nut trees in corners.
Cena: gustus- eggs, asparagus, rocket leeks
mensa prima- kid meatballs
menus secunda- fruit, wine
some triclinium designed as fountains when not in use- this made it easy to irrigate the garden
Candelabras allowed night dining.
Houses of the poor mimicked those of more well to do- vegetable gardens, herbs, fruit trees
Music, reading, comedy part of entertainment, lyre performance.
The cypher may reflect a nod to Apollo or the tibia to Dionysus.
Theater comedies like our musical comedies. Sometimes a book was read aloud- some houses are designed with stage overlooking the garden- look for elevated areas. Mothers worked in the garden.
Pliny often thought and worked in and then dedicated books in his garden. Children played- some had fences to keep children away from the pool.
Child's song:
Bucc, bucca quot sunt hic
rex eris, si recte facies.
Pets were very common and there were guard dogs. Cats kept for mice, turtles to eat insects. These are used today.
These gardens attracted ducks, pigeons, herons, turtle doves, warblers, swallows, robins, egrets, peacocks. Peacocks may also have served as watch dogs.
Songs birds kept in cages for songs.
There was a commercial aviary behind the temple of Apollo.
Elaborate paintings of animals, fish, deer gave feeling of what owner of large estate experienced.
Sundials in the garden. One in the Triangular Forum. Three types- spherical, conical and planar. Spherical was most popular.
Evidence of niches for night lights and niches outside in the street.
Religion in the garden:
sacellum, aedes, templum, sacrarium- words used for places where lares were kept. Lararium was a much later word. These shrines were quickly rebuilt after the earthquake.
One lararium shows onions, for which Pompeii was famous, being loaded. In these shrines were kept the Penates/Lares- rarely found- they took these with them. Lares were originally dieties of the fields and of dead ancestors. These were prayed to everyday at meal time with wine, incense, garlands. Hooks for garlands are often found near the hearth. Expensive offerings avoided- garlands often made of circlets of flowers. Prayers are often for good crops and wine. A figure with a toga over his head is the genius of the Pater Familias.
Offerings: cereals, salt, wine, little cakes, figs, dates, almonds, pine cones, eggs. Thus it makes sense that these are often shown in paintings in bowls. Dates were imported. Date trees in Pompeii did not produce fruit. Incense was also imported.
Only occasionally are animals sacrifices shown- this may hint that the house was sight of deity worship. These sacrifices probably took place in the garden.
The Caupona of Euxinus (I.xi.10-11)
The lararium painting is in the Thermopolium. One altar appears to have been provided for guests of the hotel. Any god could be worshiped at the altar.
Hercules was worshiped at this garden- (II. viii.6) this is just west of the Great Palaestra- there was a statue of Herc near this shrine. He was worshiped by the Samnites which took on Italic traits which was connected with Ares which was connected with worship of Ceres at the Villa of the Mysteries. Herc was special to shop keepers hopping for success and health- thus doctors and production thus vines. According to Martial three gods primary at Pompeii- Venus, Herc and Bacchus. Thus it is difficult to determine when divinities depicted were works of art or sacred- perhaps Pompeians did not distinguish.
Venus was an Italian garden goddess. Mars too was a garden deity of Samnite extraction who protected crops. There portable altars. There more images of Venus than any other. Venus is called Venus fiscia- from greek it means related to nature. Diana was another garden goddess worshiped by the Samnites in groves. I like these Samnites: great warriors and lovers of gardens- nice combo.
It is difficult to identify plants for painters used same foliage for different plants- one must look at the flower.
Sacred trees common- altars placed near by. Hung fillets, cymbals, ribbons and chaplets- Cybele was popular
Isis was worshiped at House of the Moralist, III. iv. 2-3
Zeus Sabazius was worshiped in a garden. Isis near theater when entering the Triangular forum to the left down the street. Isis universal mother who created all things with an offer of eternal life. The Isis temple is in a garden setting.
Doric temple in Triangular forum was public worship for a garden deity.
Tomb gardens had wells, cooking areas, and gardens. Triclinium tomb same side as exedra tomb but at other end before house of Diomede. Martial and others mention tomb gardens designed to give pleasure to the deceased and the living.
Gardens often landscaped with sundial(live well while there is time), sautés, parks, pools, fountains, homes for caretakers, shaded triclinium, $ was provided for upkeep and purchase of flowers, veggies and fruit trees. Pompeians frequently visited tombs- so do modern Pompeians. Possible ustrina at Porta Ercolano tomb street where road divides. Tombs near Pompeii found by accident show tomb gardens along road side. Was a low mound of dirt which turned out to be an ustrina- shows that ustrina, gardens and tomb could be combined. Eumachia's tomb is outside Porta di Nocera. Tombs paintings reveal garden scenes.
Villa of Mosaics columns may be a tomb garden (These columns are now in the museum in Naples, they are beautiful). Street frontage is roofed niche for weary travelers, inscription inside is blank- behind to the right is the tomb and pergola behind supported by four mosaic columns now in Naples museum.
Triangular Forum has doric temple- 5 deities worshiped here, carrara fountain, nearby here is base for statue of Marcus Claudius Marcellus- nephew of Augustus. The east portico was for a promenade. Vitruvius recommends such near a theater and temple for discussion and health. The view of the bay from here is stunning. The area was probably planted.
Temple of Isis was excavated 1764- 1766. Evidence of plants destroyed BUT a Herc painting shows a garden setting for Isis in front of the temple- there is an Ibis walking about.
The temple of Dionysus was found outside the city with triclinium very large for ceremonies and banquets- the triclinium was covered by a pergola.
The gladiator barracks were originally used for a promenade and gardens for theaters goes if it rained or as promenade for other days.
I now know the difference between umbrella pine and plane tree- plane tree is very similar to Sycamore. Silly me.
The Great Palaestra was a promenade, a school met here, doctors, there was a temple, exercise area, pool, shade trees
Public places had numerous gardens areas in and outside the city.
Gardens in restaurants, hotels and Inns.
copa is a hostess poem: Dine among the vines covered arbors, babbling brooks, cool drink in crystal goblets, cheese, plums, chestnuts, apples, grapes and music of flute and lyre.
Only six insula lack an inn. Most inns and restaurants are near city gates, forum and amphitheater. Those near Porta Ercolano:
VI. ii.4 damaged by bomb House of Sallust was converted to an inn.
Tombstone shows Copa bidding farewell to traveler identified by pointed hood and a mule.
Porta di Stabiana:
VIII.vii.1 stabula- slopping incline at curb.
Forum:
VII.xi.11-14 large hotel on a winding street, Stabian baths across the street. Could hold 50 guests, large garden, north wall had three triclinia- arbors, with roof of vines in arched niche. Lararium, the garden was a produce garden- plants have been restored.
Amphitheater:
I.xi.12 Euxinus- identified by amphora which sat Euxinus- . Found 34 root cavities and place where dog buried 9 bones. Put a neat touch to the area- does it not? Some wine came from this vineyard BUT as amphora indicate- imported wines too.
2 methods: dolia above ground- supposedly better
dolia below ground
1 dolia = 100 gallons. Here they may have eaten at tables
The vineyards near the amphitheater had triclinia in them.
II.viii.5- 2 masonry triclinia in atrium small bath, tin garden with 6 small triclinia- used a seats. May have served as meeting places for guilds, book makers, librarians, fullers.
Shop/House gardens
these also had gardens- often this consumed larger area than rest of the house. Usually a window allowed owner to keep eye on business while in the garden. Some had fountains
On Vias di Stabiana VII.i.27 north of stabian baths, 2 latrines- one under the stairs, the other as one entered the shop.
VII.ix.27-40 reaches through the whole insula, a wool scouring plant, had a fountain, flower garden, large window allowed view of garden painting.
IX.ii.7 charming house rear of shop or by long corridor from the street. garden with a pool.
VII.iii.11-12 on Via di Nola- largest shop, impluvium, peristyle, lower and upper room
I.xx.5 lst insula to left as one enters Porta Nocera. It opened to a wide street on north side of insula, phallus warred off evil- on wall at corner, broken pots at top discouraged thieves, numerous tree cavities found. Large cistern indicates need for extra watering- thus veggies, also had irrigation channels. Items found indicate that families spent much time here: weights, perfume bottles, lamp, tweezers, cooking equipment, doll dishes, tweezers used to extend the wick.
Bakery gardens:
IX.iii.20 bakery with garden, had a fountain and triclinium
VII.ii.22 most luxurious house of a baker, entrance at 20 and 41.
Garum gardens:
I.xii.8 2 large fig trees shaded workers, painting too. One was planted near latrina for privacy. Also fig leaves were used a toilet paper.
Fuller/wool garden:
VII.xii.22-24
VI.vii.20-21 Lucius Veranius Hypsaeus put fullory in the peristylium
There does not appear to be any business without a garden.
VII.vii.24 saw was still in the marble being cut, carved feet and herms found.
Large Vineyard
Once know as cattle market. rows are 4 roman feet apart.
3/4 depressions around each pair of vine cavities- these used to hold water. These depressions were distinct- one cavity for vine one for stake- just as her workers told her it would be- 2014 root cavities!!!!!! This investigation showed that layering was method of reproduction. Entrance had no row to allow works to bring in tools, wagons etc. One triclinium to right as entering. Other location to left where paths intersect. Nails indicate that the rows were arbored. Chestnut poles were used- these resist rot. and easy to work with. willow was used as rope- as is now. Coins found on path along north wall- stroll area? A number of trees were located- same as modern system. Following trees planted in todays vineyards:
walnut, filbert, pear, cherry, plum, fig, apple, apricot, sorb, olive. Found a carbonized bean- veggies may have been grown between vines. vitis compluviata vine training was used. (Designed like a compluvium)
different varieties of grapes may have been planted allowing one worker to care for the whole vineyard. Animal bones found- 2 cows were found in stall at house of Faun. Triclinium were money makers for vinter, a wine shop at other end from amphitheater located here.
Wine at Pompeii- wine was main product, oil second. Animal skins used for delivery door to door, shop to shop. Lamps found in wine shops. Painting shows shop keeper pouring sample tastes of wine- just like Sorrento today. If they lacked a wine press, may have used neighbors or processed grapes with feet, if making a small batch.
1 dolium= 275 gallons= 40 amphorae. A number of dolia have been found all over Pompeii.
I.xx.1. vineyard pressed by feet- considered superior top grape press- makes sense to me- this prevents bitter taste from being extracted via a press.. Grape juice was consumed. called must. There is an underground storage cellar here. Bottomless dolia were set above the cellar. One was for juice to be poured into vat below, the other to allow air to move about to prevent build up of carbon dioxide. Columella's instructions- weave baskets to picks grapes., small hooks and sickle, dolia treated with pitch, all equipment washed, wine cellar cleansed and made fragrant with smell of herbs. Prayers were offered to Liber who was later associated with Bacchus and Libera. Hence paintings of lararium in gardens of a vineyard.
III.vii.a vineyard. Arbor covered a triclinium, rows of vines, large trees, perhaps open areas for veggies, very few stakes, these were young vines, cistern for water, has been replanted, a popular tree would have supplied withes for tying up vines.
The Discovery of the Market/Orchard/Garden
I.xv.3. House of Europa
Land slopes from the house. once was two houses. upper level is much higher than lower. Large tree cavities, vine cavities, cistern for water, 2 large veggie gardens, most vines were young, pile of clay for pottery, maybe used by clay lamp place nearby. pile of crushed lava and lime for cement. He had plans. Hope he was able to carry them out at some other location. Large pots found here with usually one hole in the bottom and 3 or so around the side- this helps conserve moisture and makes it easy to transport. It is possible that these were exotic plants such as citrons which were shipped to Pompeii. Also there are signs or markers indicating that a canopy was raised over these perhaps during frost time. Citron was used by Jews- perhaps for these people- or may via jews Pompeians found that they liked these too. Holed pots also used for grafting purposes. Hardy trees to which grafts were attached were grown in pots.
Dates do not grow in Pompeii. Numerous carbonized nuts found at this place: filberts, grapes, almonds
The date must have come from gardeners lunch box- the front of the shop probably sold dates- imported and of course his own nuts and veggies. This was the first garden vineyard found in the city and speaks volumes about land use in ancient cities.
The garden of the fugitive
I.xxi.2 triclinium on one side is shorter. had a pergola but destroyed in 62 earthquake. arches under triclinium were for dishes and ware. Large tree near the triclinium. It has been suggested that instead of a vineyard that this was a rose garden- there is absence of stake for vines.
There is another small garden with a triclinium and niche for a lararium, other small niche may have held a lamp. Maybe mom and day came here in the evening to relax in the quiet of the night and talk about their dreams and the beauty of the day. Small olive trees found supported by pollen count. but since these grow large- maybe it was a nursery.
water- small garden had 2 sources. 1- water emptied from street via tile lined opening in the wall and underground channels for water distribution and a cistern.
Large Orchard
I.xxii Regular rows sort of- maybe like Herman Stroh. Three piles of soil hard to explain. Perhaps 300 trees here. Pompum to Romans was any fleshy fruit.
Triclinium in the middle of the garden shaded by 3 large trees. In front of the triclinium was an altar. Soil packed ion path leading from house to altar and triclinium- went everyday. 2 dogs found- all sorts of animal bones. Very high quality soil. Pumice allows soil to hold much water.
Pollen tests done here but carbonized fruit found, yet pollen can not tolerate heat. The lapilli which fell on Pompeii was cool. Carbonization can take place over years with low heat. When supply of oxygen is cut off. Wind blown pollen, insect transfer pollen- this was found in the garden- olive pollen. Not grown now. There was probably a variety of fruit trees.
I.vii.1 Felix fruit shop
Election notice on house- evidently grows promoted their own people to office probably to protect their interests
The Flower Industry
Flowers in demand for festivals, banquets, birthdays, weddings, games, funerals. Often in the form of a garland for guests, the dead and gods. At a sacrifice the priest assisted and the altar was decked in flowers. Many flower places provided garlands and wreathes. Vesta was patron goddess of bakers- at Vestalia many flowers were used.
Forum on market day had garlands from column to column. Favorite flowers: rose, lily(madonna lily), violet (sweet violet). Other flowers: oleander, cyan's (bachelor buttons), amaranth (cockscomb), cyclamen, coltha, pot marigold (calendula officalis, salvia, ivy.
Roses were made to bloom early by watering with warm water. Garlands were refreshed by dipping in water, portable flower booths set up in forum.
Thus makes sense that perfume trade in Pompeii was huge.
unguentarii- the ingredients they used: juice, solids, oil, salt, resin/gum
VII.iv.25- oil press
VII.iv.5 near temple of Apollo- mural of oil being made.
Flowers used for honey and medicine it was a very big business.
II.viii.6 doghouse here, hoe here, first pollen found here. During excavations a light rain revealed a circular contours and a center point. Root cavity did not survive- plants too small. To supplement water- drain hole outside had a short sluece which led water to dolium inside the house. Large trees with flower beds between and around.
Large nubbier of perfume bottles found here in small room nearby and broken bottles in the garden. Olive trees here- the oil was used in perfume production.
Modern plants similar to ancient:
cauliflower ready at end of Jan
then potatoes in 2 months
then flowers ready in 2 more months
Professional flower grower observed scavi- said it was a flower garden- just the way he did it.
Cult of Herc popular with merchants/traders perhaps this explains the altar for Herc.
Oplontis
begun 1 century BC. So many villas in the area made it look like a continuous city. Garden design reflects the rooms and the room design reflect the gardens
The Villa of Papyrus must have been a show place for quality art- the bronze ladies, Mercury, fauns in Naples are from here. Rostovtzeff argues that the paintings of villas are real places.
Bronze raven in Naples is from San Marco vestibule
Villa de Pastore is between San Marco and Villa of Arriana
Conclusion:
"gardens intimately relates to many aspects of their lives- to their architecture, both political and domestic, painting, sculpture, aesthetic expression, horticulture, religion, work and recreation"
Some cut windows in their upstair room apartments to have a view of a neighbor's gardens
Older homes had large trees in peristyle- after aqueduct more formal gardens became popular with a pool as a focal point combined with plants, sculpture as reflection
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