580. De Officiis 2 translated by Griffin and Atkins. - Summary

580.  De Officiis 2   translated by Griffin and Atkins. 

Topic of this book:  What is beneficial for life:  wealth, power, resources.  This book is somewhat of a guide for political leaders.  Selfishness of any form should be absent, since a leader has an obligation to bind society together by using ability to speak ( for example) for community good, using power that comes from that for service to community and using wealth which is acquired to benefit society.  All of this must be done via honest dealing.  Desire for glory should not led to desire for another’s property in order have more to be generous and liberal- then true honorableness and liberality is lost and what only appears to be those things exists. (Cicero here is thinking of Caesar or those like him who used his power acquired via Civil War to confiscate land from those who opposed him to give to those who supported him during the conflict.)

Cicero justifies value of philosophy.  Study of this is the only way he knows to come to an understanding of what honorableness, duty, justice, virtue, truth are.

Wisdom is the knowledge of everything divine and human and the causes which regulate them.  If anyone despises that in heaven’s name what would they praise?  With these words Cicero not only gives his view of what a human should do with their mind, life long, but also sums up in few words the thrust and value of a liberal arts education.  All of this fits with what he said in book one- we have a duty to use our talents to benefit society.  It is natural and what we are to search for truth- this leads to wisdom. 

Some educated people wondered how Cicero could have a view on duty when he followed a philosophical system which denied being certain about subjects such as truth and wisdom. 

Cicero followed the Peripatetic.  This means he argued both sides of a topic.  Peripatetics also granted few truths.  So people evidently asked how Cicero can have views on duty (officium) when he thinks that there are no absolutes.  He replies that other philosophical systems say that somethings are certain and other things are not.  He says that some things are persuasive and others are not.  He does not see how the more persuasive argument can be revealed unless both sides are discussed.  Cicero thinks that this does not prevent him from discussing duty when he finds an argument concerning duty which is more persuasive than other arguments.  It is clear that Cicero despised dogma.  Dogma leads to smugness, a false sense of comfort and, worst of all, ends further search and thought.  I doubt that Cicero would see much difference between the dogma of extreme religion and that of atheists or those who think that their philosophical system has all of the answers.  All cease to learn because they already know.

Cicero thinks that philosophy is essential for reaching truth and establishing a means to evaluate matters at hand.  Because some people do little thinking about what is just, honorable and beneficial, these end up admiring someone who is clever and crafty.  They are deceived into thinking that because someone is clever they possess honorableness and a sense of commitment to society. 

Cicero discusses the place of luck in life and society. Cicero notes that humans are capable of bringing great benefit to other people.  Cicero does not think that Gods do most harm to people but that people do most harm to people.  The greatest source of trouble to humans is done by humans.  Cicero concedes great power to fortune- the destruction of armies, war etc. yet these things do not happen without the help of other people- thus in his opinion we must by necessity cultivate and spread virtue.  This is another reason to pursue philosophy. 

Virtue rests on three things:
1.  perception of what is true, what follows from what, what is the cause of something
2.  restraining emotions;  reason must keep impulses under control
3.  working with others to secure needs of human nature for all

All three require immersion into philosophy.

If someone is only shrewd and appears to possess honorableness, justice, then the bonds between this person and others will only exist to the point at which something selfish can be derived from it.  It will be seen as the shame for what it is by good people and rejected.  The community will not be drawn together by someone who is shrewd.

Justice of sorts is even needed among thieves; how much more so in a civilized society.  Justice must be sought for its own sake.  The person who is just for what they can get out of it will only be just in so far as what it can do for them.  An understanding of what justice is can only come about via philosophy. 

So power must be sought not for sake of power but what use it can have for the person who possesses to benefit society.  This brings glory to the possessor.  Cicero gives Socrates’ formula:  the nearest path to glory is to behave in such a way that one is what one wishes to be thought.  Many people are attracted to powerful people.  If they keep this syllogism in mind:

Whatever is just is beneficial.
Whatever is honorable is just.
Whatever is honorable is beneficial.

Then they will select a person with power based on their commitment to needs of humanity and the community.  The reason for this is because our reputation is effected by the company we keep.  The belief is that we too will become like those whom we have chosen to imitate.

In this section and in other places Cicero makes reference to Caesar and others who looked to themselves and not to the needs of community. 

Next Cicero discusses lawsuits.  He cautions that prosecution should be undertaken:

-to benefit the community
-revenge
-fulfill an obligation

But excessive prosecutions should be avoided.  No one should undertake a case which threatens the civil status of an innocent person.  This is because eloquence derives from nature for the protection of other people.  It is something held in common for the common good.  He discusses undertaking the case of a guilty man:  the general public wants it, custom permits it and humanity tolerates it.  Cicero suggests that defending people binds those to society and leads those who have gone astray to beneficial and just living.

Cicero discusses liberality (generosity).  There are two methods:

-giving money
-rendering a service

Money is easier to do.  One must be careful not to give more than they have.  This leads to finding ways to take what others have.  It leads to greed.  No vice is more repulsive that greed.  But kindness to others encourages others to do the same.

Cicero points out too that extravagant displays are highly approved at that moment but have no lasting effect.  This does not bind society together- it only causes people to expect something for themselves with no thought of contributing to the whole.  If money is to be spent it should be to help a friend in debt, help in purchasing property, helping to build walks, docks, harbors, aqueducts.

Eloquence is a means of being generous.  But power and glory come from it when it is found in a person who is just, honorable and decent, when it is placed at the service of community. 

Cicero suggests that it may be better to help the poor.  The poor man thinks that you are thinking of himself.  A rich person may think that liberality exists for them because they are rich.  He does not want the rich simply sucking up to the rich.

Those who run government must see to it that each holds on to what is theirs and that  people are never deprived of what is theirs.  Cicero felt that one of the primary functions of government was/is to protect private property.  It is betrayal of the state’s function to take property from someone when one of the reasons people formed states was to protect property.  This is a reason that the smallest suspicion of avarice must be avoided in the undertaking of any public business.  To use public activity for profit is dishonorable and criminal.  To give to others by robbing from someone else does not unite a community.