722. De Officiis II by Cicero

The Choice of Hercules by Paolo de' Matteis

722.  De Officiis II by Cicero.  This book covers those topics which deal with refinement of life, with power and wealth.  Cicero gives a defense for the study of philosophy.  He says that since all power is in the hands of one, there is no place for deliberation or for difference of opinions, I have devoted myself to philosophy.  In this time of enforced retirement, it is good to share what is not well known to my country.  What is philosophy?  It is the knowledge of things divine and of human truth and the cause by which these things are controlled.  It provides rest and delight.

How else can virtues be understood?  Now we will discuss utile (usefulness, practical, advantageous, expedient)  Utile unfortunately has been severed from moral goodness to the point that something maybe morally good but not expedient.  Thus some take cunning to be a form of wisdom.  People must learn that they can get what they want by honorable means, not by craft and deception.

Two things are necessary for protecting life 1) inanimate (gold, food), 2) animate (instincts, desire).  Of animate some are rational (humans and some not (animals).  Human effort provides human needs.  Cicero gives a list of human effort- aqueducts, harbors, etc.  Humans naturally associated with each other.  From this developed cities, laws, customs, equal application of the law and manner of living.  Then followed mildness of mind, reverence and it has brought about a life more fortified.  And yet the greatest disasters for humans have been caused by humans.

This is where the pursuit of virtue can bring humans together and to unite humans for a common purpose.  The skills of hard work brings about things of use from objects and anima;s but the pursuit of wisdom and virtue advance human interests as humans.  These virtues are: 

wisdom (pursuit of truth)

temperance (restraint)

justice ( fair dealing in the exchange of goods and services and punishment for those who attack these)

There are six reasons why people help people:

1 kindness

2. out of respect

3. Because a person is successful

4. fear

5. Hope for some favor in return

6. Hope of reward.

People submit to another's power

1. good will

2. gratitude

3. due to level of dignity

4. fear 

5. hope of largess

6. Bribe.

This is the best road to influence: to be held in the highest esteem.  Fear is poor protection.  Those who use force and hatred to rule eventually meet retribution by the general populace.

The Senate was once the safe harbor of Kings, peoples and nations when the empire was based on service.  But matters fall apart when someone like Sulla holds an auction of others' property as "his loot".

The first necessity is to have friends who care about us. Distinction, renown, goodwill help to develop these friendships.  

First his discusses gloria (glory, fame, pride).  This depends on the esteem of the multitude.  To gain glory requires 

1.the admiration and goodwill of people.  What are these foundations of goodwill?  Acts of kindness.  One must do something nice even though nothing is expected.  A reputation for generosity, kindness, justice, trust.  

2. Trust or confidence is fides- it is possessed if a person is thought good, can handle situations as they arise, is just and wise.  Justice is the more important in gaining confidence.

3.  Admiration is acquired by the display of hard work, effort, caring, a strong spirit, energy, talent.  These are acquired by avoiding the faults which others have difficulty avoiding.  We admire those who resist allurements.

What ties all these together?

Justice

Every walk of life requires human cooperation.  It is easy if one is a good person.  The best defense is to be well thought of.  Even robbers live by a strict code.

Kings come about because common people were oppressed by the powerful.  One was picked for preeminence in virtue.  The impetus for establishing published laws was the same as that for a kings- equality before the law.  Justice should be cultivated for its own sake and for the honor and fame which come with it.

Socrates said that the short cut to gloria is to be the kind of person one wishes to be thought.  Everything fake quickly fall like little petals of a flower.

How to have a good name?

1. It can be inherited- a son can inherit the good name of a father

2. as soon as one can one should strive for greatness

3. a military career.

4. hard mental work, attention to restraint, respect for parents, kindness toward relatives

5. Attaching oneself to quality people- for people tend to think that a person tends to have the same traits as those they associate with.

6. by eloquence- which consists of two parts- a. the ability be persuasive in a court case or public setting or b. conversation.

There are two kinds of court cases:  defense and prosecution

There are rules for these court cases.  Never prosecute a person on capital charges who is innocent.  For it is wrong to use eloquence to destroy an innocent person in court.  Eloquence should be used for the safety and preservation of people.  

As long as someone has not committed an heinous crime, he may be rightfully defended.  The masses desire it, custom accepts it and it is the humane thing to do.  For it is the judge who is supposed to look for truth.  The attorney is to present what is plausible.

Now we discuss kindness and generosity.  There are two ways to help the needy:

1. effort

2. money

Money is easier but service is more noble.  Too many bank withdrawals and one becomes less likely to have enough to help others.  But putting forth effort, helping others helps to encourage others to help others.  This pulls society together.   The habit of service produces  practice in service.  But the distribution of money only produces the expectation of more. Kindness which requires effort and diligence benefits a greater number of people.

Gifts of money are fine as long as it is not overdone and one must make sure that it is deserved.  Cicero praises that generosity which draws people together and encourages the same from others.  Huge outlay of expenditures can only appeal to slaves and the servile types.

There are ways to practice largess in a manner that has lasting benefit.  Such as a banquet in the street for all during some festival.

Cicero is an example.  For he rose to each office in the first year he was eligible and yet spent modestly during his Aedileship.  It is better he says to give money for docks, harbors, walls, aqueducts.  These serve the whole community.  He thinks less so of theaters, porticos and new temples. His guiding rule is a quote from Ennius:

bene facta male locata male facta arbitror=

I think that good deeds poorly employed are bad deeds.

There are many ways to bring benefit to others, if done properly it brings benefit to more than one.

The ability to speak is a fine means for benefiting society.

It is very important that an act of kindness for one does not injure another.  People often give based of the anticipation of a return.  Cicero points out that the poor are more appreciative of generosity in the form of service.:

ego vero malo virum qui pecunia eget, quam pecuniam, quae viro.=

I prefer a man who needs money rather than money which needs a man

The worship of money has corrupted and debased morals and customs.  

All of the above puts an obligation upon leaders to protect property:

1. the purpose of the state is to protect property of people and not use the power of government to take it away

2. avoid taxes

3. maintain high standards

The love of money has produced the necessity for more and more trials for extortion.

Cicero gives numerous examples from the past of those who benefited the state but did not increase their wealth.  No vice is worse for a leader than greed:

habere enim quaestui rem publicam non modo turpe est, sed sceleratum etiam et nefarium=

to use the state for personal profit is not only repulsive but also darn right wicked and evil.

Those who disrupt the foundations of society, the protection of property, by taking from some to give to others hope to gain the love of people but in the end do not.

Cicero's story of Aratus is used to contrast with the unjust manner in which Caesar operates.  It is a mark of greatness to keep the interests of the entire state in one's sights.

720. Letters to Atticus vol I by Cicero, Loeb

Cicero, Quintus and Atticus by Richard Wilson

720.  Letters to Atticus, vol. 1 by Cicero, Loeb.

#1.  Rome 68, November.  Lucius died, Cicero is heart broken.  Peducaeus helped with business deal.  Cicero mentions Tusculum.  

#2.  Rome, 68.  Father died November 23.  Looking for objects for gymnasium.  Loves Tusculum.

#3.  Rome before February 13, 67.  Asks about library for Tusculum.

#4.  Rome, after February 13, 67.  Purchased Megarian marble statues, loves the pentalic Herm, bronze heads.  Looking for sculpture suitable for gymnasium and xystus.

#5.  Rome,March/April 67.  Waiting for Megarian statues and herms.  Looking for things suitable for Academy (Is this the name for his villa at Tusculum?)

#6.  Tusculum, May, 67.  Looking forward to statues and Heracles Herms.  Looking for things suitable for palaestra and gymnasium.  He is sitting in the gymnasium while writing this letter.  He is looking for typos (relief sculpture to be placed on a wall, carved well covers (puteolia).

#7.  Rome, August 67.  He is working hard to reconcile Lucceius to Atticus but unsuccessful.  Cicero is running for office.  He is excited about books and other items for Academy.

#8.  Rome, end of 67.  Awaits Atticus' return.  Statues which Atticus bought for Cicero are at Caieta.  Lucceius is still angry.  Tullia is engaged to C. Piso Frugi.

#9.  Rome, 1st half of 66.  Cicero, praetor, handles C. Macer's case and conviction.  Herm of Athena now in Academy, herms commonly found in such places.  Looking forward to other pieces.  These are at Formiae house.  Soon will be moved to Tusculum and will decorate Caieta later.  Hold the books until there is money to purchase.

#10.  Rome, just before July 17, 65.  His prospects for the consulship.  Other candidates - Caesar a shoe in- a curator of the Via Flaminia.  Cicero loves the Hermathena- it is the highlight of the gymnasium.

#11.  Rome, after #10.  65.  Marcus born.  Cicero may defend Catiline.  Cicero meets Atticus in Rome.

#12.  Rome, January 1, 61.  Problems with Antonius.  Clodius caught at Bona Dea.  At this point is a fun piece of gossip.  Sositheus, Cicero's reader, died.  Cicero very upset.

#13.  Rome January 25, 61.  Cicero received three letters from Atticus.  The first was delivered by M. Cornelius who delived it to Cicero at Tres Tabernae.  2nd came from Canusium, 3rd by ship.  Cicero has difficulty finding reliable post:  qui epistulam paulo graviorem ferre possit nisi eam perlectione relevarit.  Cicero named number 2 after Princeps of the Senate.  Piso is petty, Messala tough.  Clodius' affair.  Caesar's divorce.  Cicero suspects serious mischief.  Pompey is jealous.

#14.  Rome, Feburary 13, 61.  Cicero is swamped.  Pompey's speech poorly received.  Fufius, a tribune, called Pompey to speak at contio, egged on by Piso, at the Flaminian Circus.  Pompey in speech supports Senate.  In the Senate Messala asked Pompey his position on Clodius' trial.  He said that he supported Senate.  Pompey was sitting next to Cicero.  Then Crassus to steal limelight from Pompey stands up and praises Cicero.  Cicero says Senate was resolute in the matter of Clodius.  A bill was presented to people about it, opposed by friends of Clodius.  Piso, consul, urged no vote. It was discovered that ballots with only nay were distributed.  Then Cato takes platform and criticizes Piso.  Hortensius, Favonius helped.  Assembly dismissed.  The Senate passes motion to support the bill.  Clodius begs.  Vote- 400 to 15.  Clodius proceeds with crazy speeches.

#15.  Rome, March 1, 61.  Quintus receives Asia as province for governor.  Cicero asks Atticus to be on his staff.

#16.  Rome, early July, 61.  Clodius' trial with all of its drama and Cicero's testimony.  Hortenius' blunder.  Crassus used money to bribe jurors.  Pompey pushes L. Afranius for Consul.  Cicero sees this as a big mistake.  Atticus decides not be on Quintus' staff.  Atticus wrote an epigram for Amalthea.  Cicero would appreciate a description of the Amalthea, decorations, poems.  Cicero would like to do the same at Arpinum.

#17.  Rome, December 5, 61.  Discussion of Quintus' anger with Atticus.  Very philosophical.  Atticus apparently felt compelled to explain his mode of life to Cicero.  Cicero comforts Atticus and respects his choice.  There is difficulty in maintaining harmony between Senate and Equites.  Cicero has drawn closer to Pompey but realizes the dangers.  Cicero mentions the coming election concerning Caesar and Bibulus.

#18.  Rome, January 20, 60. Cicero misses Atticus as a confidant.  Quintus is in Asia, Cicero is lonely, even though accompanied by throngs to the forum.  He worries of family matters.  His only consolation is Terrentia, Tullia and Marcus.  Politics is a mess: Clodius' trial, Senate ineffective and scandel (Memmius initiated M. Lucullus' wife and wiped his boots on Agamemnon.)  C. Herenius, tribune, propsed to make Cldoius a plebeian.

#19.  Rome, March 15, 60. Cicero jokes that he is better at writing letters.  Politics- there is the Gallic scare.  Ambassadors are to be sent to prevent Gauls from joining Helvetians.  Tribune Flavius pushing agrarian law for Pompey.  Cicero got the parts removed which were bad for private interests.  Tribune Herenius pushing bill to make Clodius pleb.  Votoed each time.  Pompey and Cicero are tight but Cicero is wary of the "honest men".  Cicero is not able to help Atticus' affair.  Cicero is sending his Greek version of his Consulship, soon a Latin version, then a poem.  Quintus writes to Cicero that he never said anything bad about Atticus.

#20.  Rome, May 12, 60. Cicero returns from Pompeii, May 12.  Cicero mentions Atticus' kind and polite letter.  Pompey is too eager for popularity but Cicero takes the high road.  Cicero will stay true to his code.  But he misses Catullus who just died.  Cicero feels alone now.  He is aware of jealous nobles.  Metellus is an impressive Consul but Afranius is pathetic. L.Papirius Paetus offered Cicero books of Ser. Claudius.  Cicero is excited.

#21.  Antium, June 3 (?) 60.  Cicero gives C. Cossinius his Greek version of his consulship for Atticus.  Atticus wrote one too.  Cicero sends some speeches as these are requested by the young, his "little speeches":  Agrarian law, Otho, Catilinarian etc.  Clodius still pushing to be a pleb.  Metellus stops.  Clodius and Cicero battle in the Senate, but Clodius keeps pushing to be a pleb.  Banter and barbs are exchanged.  Cicero hopes to steer Pompey for good constitutional purposes.  Cicero hopes to bind Caesar to benefit the state.  Cicero's criticism of Cato is that he is too insistent on keeping to stoic principals.  His Amalthea looks forward to seeing Atticus.  Cicero is pleased with Tusculum and Pompeii.  Cicero sends Prognostica.  Cicero asks Atticus again to take care of books from Paetus.

#22.  Antium, December 15 (?) 60.  Cicero enjoys Dicaearchus.

#23.  Rome maybe, after 22. Atticus criticizes the size of Cicero's windows- a discussion on widow philosophy follows. Cicero hopes to work with Caesar and Pompey.  Cicero looks forward to their strolls on the Compitalia.  He promises to have the baths ready.  Terentia invites Pomponia and Atticus' mother.  Cicero requests Theophrastus' On Ambition from Quintus' library.

#24.  Antium, early August, 59.  Clodius is going on embassy to Tigranes.  Atticus asked for Cicero to work on Geography.  Cicero expects himself to have something to show for his absence from politics. He plans to be at Formiae or Pompeii by the Kalends.  He expresses concern for the wall at Quintus' house.

#25.  Antium, just after 24.  59.  Cicero faces the possibility of embassy to Alexandria for Ptolemy XII.  Cicero is spending time with the muses and loves it.

#26.  Antium, after 25.  59.  Cicero may not be able to produce literature.  He is enjoying himself so much.  He reads or counts the waves.  Partly because it is not good weather for fishing.  He enjoys Antium because no one knows about problems in Rome.

#27.  Antium, after 25. 59. Cicero promises to have something to show for his vacation.  Pompey and Crassus quietly pass a Lex Curiata to make Clodius a pleb.  Cicero sees danger in this.  Cicero says that he will not forget what Atticus said about Amalthea.

#28.  Antium, April 16, 59.  Servants lost the letters which Atticus wrote to Cicero.  Cicero remarks that Atticus' letters are useful and charming.  The Ist Triumvirate is in play.  Cicero goes to Formiae on Pariles, then leave Formiae May 1, then to Antium on the 3rd, then Tusculum, then Arpinum, then Rome by June 1.

#29.  Antium April 16, 59.  Cicero waits more news from Rome about Clodius and his moves.  Cicero disgusted at laws ignored by Vatinius and Caesar.  People may have disliked domination of the Senate under Cicero but just wait for their reaction at three men running everything.  Cicero will return to Antium from Formiae.  From Antium to Tusculum.

#30.  Tres Tabernae, April 19, 59.  Cicero disgusted at way Clodius was made a pleb.  What a joke.  He met Curio at Trest Tabernae.  Cicero learned that Clodius is to run for Tribune.  Atticus urges Cicero to write.  Atticus made favorable comments about Dicaearchus.  This letter was written at 4 PM.

#31.  Forum Apii, April 20, 59.  Cicero will not attend the games at Antium because it may give the impression of pleasure seeking.  He is going to Formiae.

#32.  Formiae, April 23, 59.  News slow to reach Cicero here.  Quotes Odyssey:  9.27 when referring to Arpinum.

#33.  Formiae, April 24, 59.  Formiae= Laestrygonian Telepylus.  People here are disgusted with Triumvirs.  Cicero has been studying.

#34.  Formiae, April 26, 59.  Pompey will be shocked to see his reputation on the tank.  Atticus urges Cicero to compose.  But Cicero cites the constant stream of visitors.  These may annoy but Cicero clearly does not dismiss.

#35.  Formiae, April28, 59.  Cicero not impressed with Bibulus holding up elections.  Cicero clearly here and in previous letters not personally concerned with Publius' tribunate bid.

#36.  Formiae, April 29, 59. Caesar's agrarian law in the works.  Cicero has concerns for Campanian domain.  Pompey's stand?  He has quibbled, fence walked, straddled in so many issues that little room is left him.  Cicero has thrust himself into study.

#37.  Formiae after 32, 59.  Cicero and Atticus note that Pompey is looking for dominance: i.e.- the new marriage, the three have another goal in view.  Cicero will discuss matters at Arpinum, May 10.

#38.  Rome, June 59.  Campanian Law passed.  Contains requirement for oath by any candidate.  Laterensis withdrew from tribune bid rather than take the oath.  Caesar offers Cicero Commissionship, also offered Free Commission.  But Cicero does not want to be out of Rome when his brother returns.

#39.  Rome, July 7-14, 59.  Cicero upset about Statilius' manumission.  Triumvirs unpopular to the extreem.  People protest but have no power to act.  At plays Pompey is hammered.  Caesar entered theater and no one clapped.  But Curio received an ovation. Diphilus (actor):  "To our misfortune you are great".  Publius threatens.  Caesar offers Cicero to be on his staff.

#40.  Rome, circa July, 59.  Pompey says that Clodius will attack Cicero over his dead body.

#41.  Rome, July 25 (?), 59.  The Republic is in deep trouble.  Much of what has been done by Triumvirs was to get Cato.  It has ruined Rome.  Pompey is hammered without pause.  Cicero worries that these guys when frustrated will get violent.  Caesar gives a speech against Bibulus- not well received.  Clodius is dangerous but Pompey says he has Cicero's back.

#42.  Rome, August, 59.  Clodius attacks this, that and bounces all about.  Pompey told Cicero that he told Clodius to leave Cicero alone.  Cicero has kept low, house is thronged, busy in courts.  He needs to find out Clodius' plans.

#43.  Rome, August, 59.  Cicero dictates this letters as he walks because he is so busy.  Pompey regrets his position.  Clodius threatens too.

#44.  Rome, August, 59.  The plot against Pompey's life.  Vettius, the informer.  The next day Caesar brings him to the Rostra and he changes those whom he accused of the plot.

#45.  Rome, September, 59.  The Republic is not healthy.  Cicero builds defense via courts, associations and meetings.

#46.  On route, March 22, 58.  Cicero exiled.  Needs to make plans.

#47.  On route, March 22, 58.  Mad, depressed, sees no hope.

#48.  Nares Lucanae, March 27, 58.  Difficult to find safe routes, places to stay.

#49.  Vibo, April 3, 58.  Canged course for Brundisium.  Can not stay at Malta.  Must be 400 miles from Rome.

#50.  Thurii, April 6, 58.  My enemies have robbed me of my things but not myself.

#51.  Near Tarentum, April 17, 58.  Perhaps he will go to Asia.

#52.  Brundisium, April 29, 58.  Depressed, angry, feels abandoned.  Realizes those who failed to back him up out of jealousy.

#53.  Thessalonica, May 29, 58.  Trying to meet Quintus.  Cicero worries about Quintus being prosecuted.  Cicero feels betrayed by Hortensius.

#54.  Thessalonica, June 13, 58.  Cicero could not bring himself to meet Quintus.

#55.  Thessalonica, June 17, 58.  Reviews his incredible misfortune that he feel from such a great height with such a good case.

#56.  Thessalonica, June 27, 58.  Cicero has hope.

#57.  Thessalonica, July 17, 58.  Matters are going through the Senate but Cicero sees many obstacles.  Then the speech leaked out he wrote against Curio and Clodius.

#58.  Thessalonica, July 21, 58.  He has not left Thessalonica, he awaits news.

#59.  Thessalonica, August 5, 58.  Cicero's chances seem to fade.  There is hope in the new tribunes designate.  Atticus tells Cicero he is of sound mind.

#60.  Thessalonica, August 17, 58.  Rumors are about that Cicero has lost his mind.  There is no one here to talk to.  Cicero reviews his feelings of loss and abandonment.  Cicero regrets leaving Rome.  Cicero discusses Clodius' opposition, the difficulty of getting things done, concern for return of property, Cicero blames himself.

#61.  Thessalonica, August 19, 58.  His hopes rise and fall.

#62.  Thessalonica, September 4, 58.  Worries of Quintus being prosecuted.  He appreciates everything Atticus does for his family.

#63.  Thessalonica, September 10, 58.  Pompey takes hand in the matter and Quintus supports.

#64.  Thessalonica, September 15, 58.  Cicero plans to go to Epirus, Atticus makes Cicero hopeful.  Cicero knows he was betrayed.

#65.  Thessalonica, October 5, 58.  Caecilius died giving Atticus his name.  Cicero very happy.  Cicero knows he has been hard on Atticus.  Concerned about details of the language of Sestius' Bill for his recall.

#66.  Thessalonica, October 28, 58.  Keep me informed.

#67.  Thessalonica, November 16, and Dyrrachium, November 25, 58.  Plancius has been very supportive.  Lentulus, Pompey and others are helping.

#68.  Dyrrachium, November 29, 58.  Details of Tribune bills both old and new.  Cicero gives Atticus specific suggestions on improvement for wording.

#69.  Dyrrachium, December 10, 58.  Cicero wanted an honest update on political maneuvering concerning his recall.

#70.  Dyrrachium, December 15 (?), 58.  Depressed again as he loses hope.  Worries about appearing ungrateful.

#71.  Dyrrachium, January 15(?), 57.  Now appears that things are going through the Senate.

#72.  Dyrrachium, early February, 57.  Depressed for the recall law before the Assembly was blocked by Clodius gang.  Quintus almost killed in the riots which followed.

#73.  Rome, September 10, 57.  Cicero is back.  General situation- pleased, recovered prestige, authority in Senate, influence.  Account of his return:

Left Dyrrachium August 4.

Landed at Brundisium August 5.

Tullia was there- it was her birthday.

August 11- at Brundisium via Quintus of Centuriate vote.

Rome- returns via Porta Capena- people all over temple steps.

September 5- speech of thanks

September 7- Clodius stirs up grain shortage problem- Cicero speech appoints Pompey to handle matter.

September 8- Senate meets- measures passed- Pompey to handle grain

Cicero soon will hear Pontiffs decision about his house

#74.  Rome, beg of October, 57.  More news of problems.  Battles over his house.  September 29 was his speech to Pontiffs.  Eagerly awaited by younger set.  

October 1- thrust and parry in Senate to settle matters.  Clodius atttempts to filibuster- he is shouted down.

October 2- Senate passes measure

Cicero's house and Catullus' portico to be restored. Palatine and Tusculum and Formiae house valued.  

Cicero on Pompey's commission but Cicero hopes to run for Censorship.  Cicero thinks he will put Tusculum up for sale.

#75.  Rome, November 22, 57.  

November 3 Clodius' men attack Cicero's house under construction on Palatine.  Catullus' portico destroyed.

November 11- Clodius attack Cicero on Via Sacra

November 12- Clodius attacks Milo's house but was beaten off by Q. Flaccus.

November 19-  Milo to campus before midnight- much rioting

November 22- Cicero writes this letter 2 am.

#76.  Rome, January 28, 56.  Cicero looks forward to Atticus' visit.

#77.  Arpinum, April 14, 56. Cicero asks Atticus to post guards at his house.

#78.  Antium, June 20, 56. Tyrranio has arranged Cicero library- these must those left from Clodius looting at Tusculum(?).

#79.  Antium, after 78, 56.  Cicero calls this area nothing quieter, nothing cooler, nothing more charming.

#80.  Antium after 79, 65.  Atticus bugged that Cicero sent De Consularibus Provinciae to Pompey first.  Cicero is taking new line for better security to allign himself with Pompey and Caesar.  Cicero's house once belonged to Catullus.  Atticus' people painted Cicero's library. 

#81.  Antium, end of June, 56.  Chatty.

#82.  Antium/Tusculum, November 17, 56.L.Domitius failed to gain Consulship.  Pompey and Crassus elected Consuls.

#83.  Cumae, April 19, 55.  Cicero says politics is a mess.  If I say what I should about the Republic I am crazy, if what is necessary as a slave, if silent, oppressed.  Atticus asked Cicero to write something dedicated to Hortensius.

#84.  Cumae, April 27, 55.  I am feeding of Faustus' library.  As Rome is a mess, literature is my salvation.  I long to sit on that seat beneath Aristotle's bust and take a walk.  Instead he walks with Pompey.

#85.  Naples, April 27, 55.  Meeting with Pompey.  Off to Pompeii.

#86.  Tusculum, June 26, 55.  Reading and reading.

#87.  Tusculum, November 15/16, 55.  Crassus left for Syria.  Cicero is busy with De Oratore.  

#88.  Cumae or Pompeii, Mid May, 55.  Cicero plans to use Atticus' library.

#89.  Rome, July 1, 55.  Cicero is planning a book with Varro in it.  Caesar's building progress in Campus Martius. Discussion of De Republica.  Legal battles.  Paulus' basilica almost done-  Cicero says it is beautiful.

719. De Officiis I by Marcus Tullius Cicero

719.  De Officiis, bk I by Marcus Tullius Cicero.  Cicero writes this for his son, Marcus, who was studying in Athens.  Cicero quickly makes the point that knowledge (scientia) goes hand in hand with examples.  What better place than Athens to be reminded of examples of great people?  But Cicero's caution in urging his son to study helps to make this piece universal.  What parent would not want the same?  So again, as Cicero so often does, his intro/setting has more than what meets the eye.

Cicero suggests that his son's Latin will improve by reading his father's philosophical works.  It does not seem that this is bragging so much as honesty- for Cicero yields to others superiority in philosophy but in terms of speaking clearly, suitably and elegantly- that is Cicero's own.  It is clear from this that Cicero is using this to combine philosophy and thought with style.  For him these are inseparable.

All aspects of a good life are intertwined

What topic should he select for his son?  Duties seem to have the widest possible application. Here is an example of his gentle style:

…in eoque colendo sita vitae est honestas omnis et neglendo turpitudo.

= and in cherishing duty all that is morally good of life has been placed and in neglecting duty all that is wrong.

To add force to his comment Cicero places vitae in the midst of the verb sita est.

Every philosophical system lays down precepts for duty.  The only philosophical system which can establish rules of conduct are those which say that moral goodness (honestum) is worth seeking for its own sake or especially.

Cicero intends to follow the Stoic system- not as a translator for he intends to draw from his own well.

But first duty must be defined.  This part of the passage is missing but the Loeb edition suggests:

Everything which is done using reason is an officium.  So for Cicero officium (duty/obligation) is applying reason to actions taken.  Officium combines thought and action.

There are two parts to duty:

1.  The supreme good or the greatest good

2.  guiding rules for conduct

Cicero will primarily cover number 2 in this work, but first will make an argument for 1.

There are two categories for duty: medium and perfectum.  Medium are those which are ordinary or neutral but perfectum is an obligated duty which is called morally right (rectum).  In other words there are some things which we do which has no moral consequence- such as whether to buy a bagel or sour dough (medium).  Some acts, such as whether to abide by an agreement, carry the weight of moral goodness (perfectum).

Panaetius, a stoic philosopher, says that deliberation (deciding what to do) is 3 fold:

1.  Must decide whether an act is morally right or wrong

2.  Then ponder if the planned act is for their own benefit/advantage

3.  Then ponder when what they want to do seems to conflict with what is morally right (honorable).

Cicero adds:

4.  Of two morally right plans which is superior?

5.  Of two advantageous plans which is more advantageous?

Every animal looks to its own survival and avoids what appears harmful, each seeks the means for survival: food, shelter, etc.  Every animal desires to produce young and provides some kind of care for these.  Cicero differentiates between animals and humans:  animals are moved by their sense and possess little grasp of the future.  Humans possess reason which perceives the causes of things, consequences, cause and effect, compares similarities and applies these to the present situation and views the whole course of life and makes preparation for living it.

Nature by this power of reason unites human to human both by the alliance of speech and fellowship of life, she instills a love of offspring, nature persuades humans to be part of and engaged in meetings and festivals.  Because of these interests, Nature makes a human eager to provide for food for self, children, family.  This produces courage.

The pursuit of truth is peculiar to humans.  When obligations are fulfilled, humans want to learn and humans consider it contemplation necessary to live well.  This activity allows humans to learn what is true and genuine.  The desire of truth produces an appetite for independence.  As a result, a well trained mind desires to obey no one except to be obedient to someone who is teaching or for practical reasons top someone giving orders.  From this pursuit of truth comes enhanced understanding of life and scorn for problems of life.

Humans alone possess a sense of order, existence and restraint in word and deed.  All animals possess sight but only humans perceive beauty, charm, harmony.  From this has developed a sense that order, beauty, harmony must be observed in our plans and actions by our very nature.  And Nature makes us beware of doing anything in a weak or wimpy manner and to do what we do with forethought.  This is moral goodness- to access our nature, search for truth and live by those high standards determined by our human traits.

Moral goodness arrises from one of these four:

1.  Perception of the truth (Truth)

2.  In guarding society, a faithful execution of reasoned justice (Justice)

3.  In courage (Courage)

4.  In moderation/restraint (Temperance)

Truth- The pursuit of truth produces good sense and wisdom.  The other three virtues have to do with protecting society, increasing wealth and not placing too much value on things.  These require physical activity in addition to mental.  By pursuing these humans will preserve moral goodness.

The pursuit of truth is closely connected to human nature.  Two faults just be avoided:

1.  We must not assume that we know what we do not know.

2.  We should not devote too much time to useless things.

If our studies draw us away from a life active in community/society, this is wrong.  Why?  Every virtue consists in action.  We may be drawn away but only temporarily.  Our minds toil even when we are unaware.

Last three virtues require thinking by which union of humans is maintained.

Justice- We should do harm to no one, unless provoked, use common things for common purposes and private things for private purposes.  But Cicero fully realized that in Nature there is no such thing as private property.

As Plato said we were born not just for ourselves but our country claims a part and family and friends.  All animals have been created for human benefit but humans have been created for humans.

The rock of justice is good faith.  There are two kinds of injustice- inflicting wrong and doing nothing to stop injustice.  Sometimes wrongs are committed when an individual figures that if he does not cause harm, the other will do it first.  But most harm is caused by greed.  Greed places great store in objects of expense and produces a desire for more money.  Ambition for power and office and fame causes forgetfulness of justice.  The more talent that a person possesses and the more ambition, the more carefully such a person must be.

Premeditation is far worse than a a crime committed on the spur of the moment.

Plato said that philosophers because the pursue truth are just.  True says Cicero and they do no direct harm but they abandon those they should protect.  Plato- philosophers should participate in political life only is forced.  Cicero- it is more just to participate voluntarily for it is right only of done of free will.

What about those who only attend to their affairs? They abandon the partnership of life because they make no effort with the means they have.  It is difficult to know when to get involved.  If there is any doubt, it is best to do nothing for we know when it is the right thing to do.

Duty changes as situations emerge.  Thus it is not right to keep all promises.  For example I may promise to return an item when requested and under most circumstances should do so.  However, if a demand is made for the return and it is felt that the item may be used to cause harm, it should not be returned.

Cleverness in law in order to dupe is condemned.  

Some duties exist on our part toward others who have wronged us.  There must be a limit to punishment.

War is only justified when discussion is not possible and we can not live in peace without it.  There are strict rules of engagement with the enemy and who it is that can fight the enemy.

Generosity is part of justice.  There is a caution here- must not harm the person upon whom we bestow the kindness or to others.  Kindness should not exceed our resources, should be geared to what the received deserves.  Whoever does harm in act of giving or harms another in order to generous to others is bad news.  

Many think that whoever robs one to benefit another that these will seem kind to friends.  This is contrary to duty for generosity should harm no one.  Sulla's and Caesar's transfer to someone of money rightfully belonging to someone else is not generosity nor justice. 

We should not be so generous that we give away what should be for relatives and such generosity leads to taking what belongs to them.

The person receiving the kindness needs to be assessed in terms of character and what they have done for us.

We do not live among perfect people, therefore should admire those who display indication of virtue.  The more someone displays a sense of reserve, restraint, justice, the more affection we should feel.  Cicero does not list courage in anyone who has not attained a sense of the other three virtues.  For courage without the other three is merely a mark of impetuosity.

We do not measure kindness by intensity but by its consistency.  No duty is more important than showing gratitude.

There are two kinds of generosity

1.  Giving a kindness

2.  Returning one

A spur of the moment generosity does not carry same responsibility for requital as that which has been thought out carefully. As regards someone who deserves it, the more they are in need, the more they should receive.  Most people help those from whom they hope to receive the most, even though those have little need. The union of people is best served by conferring kindness on those closest.

The essence of society is bound up in the characteristics of human nature.  The fundamental characteristics of human nature is speech and reason.  Teaching, learning, conversation, argument, decisions join human to human.  Thus in a way, society is natural.  Private property is just that but all else is that shared among fellow humans.

Whatever kindness can be given without personal loss should be given:  to share water right, fire, good advice.  There should be contributions to as many people as possible as long as the present generosity does not impair future generosity.  There are shared things:  forum, temples, porticoes, roads, statutes, laws, courts, voting rights, associations, numerous contracts of business, etc. 

The reproductive instinct creates the first union- marriage.  Then children, house, things shared.  The family expands and there are cousins, 2nd cousins.  These expand to other houses, other marriages, connections.  This is the origin of the state.

Justice and generosity produce friendship which in a sense are modeled on those ties of family to family.  What could be more dear than country which makes all the above possible.  Only a monster would rend its fabric.  Country and friendship are closely connected.  Almost as though one cannot exist without the other.

Circumstances call upon different duties or obligations.  But no virtue is worth anything without use and practice.

The Stoic definition of fortitude- a virtue which fights for what is right.  Courage must be morally right to be true courage.  Courage without justice and love of truth is simple audacity.  Courage alone can produce a desire for pre-eminence.  In this is born a desire for conquest.  However much such a person excels in greatness of courage so much more that person is eager to be pre-eminent.  Whoever desires to be superior to all others has difficulty preserving a sense of equality which is essential for justice.  From this it happens that such people allow themselves to be restrained by debate, argument, public authority.  They want unlimited powers and to be superior by force rather than equal via justice, true courage and prevent injury.

Greatness of spirit manifests itself in deeds not fame.  Whoever claims greatness based on judgement of the inexperienced must not be classed among the great.  There are two parts to courage:  1.  to be above bad fortune. 2.  Brave deeds.  #2 is useful but #1 makes people great.

The life of philosophers and teachers are of great value to society but easier and safer.  But those who have no excuse are flawed for they exist only for themselves.  They fear the difficult more and the potential for rejection.  Those who possess talent have an obligation to use their ability for good. A leader/public official should conduct oneself with reserve, distain of ordinary human circumstance with a tranquil mind.  Those involved in guiding the state have need for ways to unbend the mind.  The goal should not be the office and its glory but an opportunity of being successful.  They should not lose heart at failure or be too confident because of eagerness.  Careful preparation must attend every endeavor.

Many think that war is the key to greatness.  It is not.  The story of Solon vs Themistocles is a valuable one.  Solon created the system which allowed Themistocles to achieve his success.  Weapons are useless without plan at home.  A lofty mind is not measured by bodily strength but by moral courage.  Moral goodness is in the care and contemplation of the mind.  A steady and calm mind should face every crisis.  Planning is less likely to contain mistakes when the mind is calm and collected. 

No leader foolishly exposes oneself to danger but yet is willing to commit to a calculated risk in a dangerous situation.  A leader must be willing to put oneself in danger rather than the state even if it entails losing the good will of the populace.  Personal pride must give way to the needs of the state.

Omnino qui rei publicae praefuturi sunt,  duo Platonis praecepta teneant, unum, ut utilitatem civium sic tueantur, ut, quaecumque agunt, ad eam referant obliti commodorum suorum, alterum, ut totum corpus rei publicae curent, ne, dum partem aliquam tuentur, reliquas deserant.

Whoever will be in charge of the state must operate by two precepts of Plato: one that they look out for the advantage of the citizens in such a way that whatever they do they forgetful of their own advantage base whatever they do on this, 2nd that look out for the needs of the whole state, in order that, while they protect one part, they may not abandon the rest.

Leaders must not listen to those who think that there must be serious anger with political enemies and give out that this is characteristic of a brave and courage person;  nothing is more praiseworthy, nothing more dignified in a great and outstanding person than a readiness to forgive and mildness.  Among a free people and in equality before the law, good nature and self control must be practiced in order that we should not stoop to harmful and hateful unpleasantness, if we should become angry either with people descending upon us at a bad time or asking questions rudely.

Snobbishness and haughtiness and arrogance should be avoided in a leader.  Must not succumb to flattery. 

Government service is most important but there are other ways to assist.  Helping friends, assisting projects.

The remaining part of moral goodness is what is commonly called temperance.  Cicero defines as modesty, the polish of life, temperance, and reserve and complete control of passions and restraint in all things.  The Latin word he chooses is decorum.  It in contrast to courage can not be separated from moral goodness.  The difference between moral goodness and decorum (temperance) is that moral goodness must exist before decorum can show itself. 

What decorum is is brought out in terms of the other three virtues:  truth, justice and courage.  I.e. to use reason and speech wisely and to act with consideration and deliberation, to examine what is true and care for it is proper- that is decorum.  Decorum is only evident in light of the other virtues.  Decorum can only be detected mentally.

There is a twofold description:

1.  Decorum is evident in moral goodness

2.  That decorum which pertains to each virtue individually- i.e. what is in harmony with what it is to be human.

Examples:  poets display decorum when a character in a play says what is appropriate for that character.  Nature has assigned to us what is decorum in light of those qualities peculiar to their being human. Modesty and restraint are part of being human and nature instructs these not to be neglected.  Thus decorum possesses a wide range of activity.  That aspect of duty which is decorum provides a road which leads to the harmony and preservation of a person's nature.  Thus truth will be preserved and the union of one human to another (justice) and courage.

The essence of decorum is in temperantia in which bodily movement and mental make up are connected.

There are two parts to the mind:

1.  Appetite which pulls us this way and that and

2. Reason which teaches what must be avoided and done.

When appetites prevail we loose that serenity and reserve which is so characteristic of human nature.  Why? Reason is the definitive characteristic of a human and appetite disturbs the natural arrangement that reason rules the appetite.  It is fine and dandy to play after all duties have been met.  Wittiness and cleverness are the goal but never crudity or rudeness.

Physical pleasure is ok but measured by usefulness for health not pleasure.

Humans are endowed by Nature with two aspects:

1.  Reason which separates us from animals and is the basis on which moral goodness rests.

2.  The peculiar characteristics of each person- some are serious, others jovial, etc.

Part of decorum is fitting one's personal personality to human nature. If there is something called decorum, then consistency not only in one's whole life but also in particular action for imitating the nature of someone else one can not preserve one's own decorum.  Each person must find a way to adjust their personality to their nature as Ajax and Odysseus.  We should be at least as consistent as actors who choose not the best plays but those most suitable to themselves.  

There are two more aspects to the nature of a person Cicero mentions in 107.  

3. That which arrises in a crisis and  

4. that which we choose for ourselves. 

 This should give an idea why propriety is difficult to nail down. Deciding what is the best course for our life is most difficult for that is done when we are young and immature.

The most powerful influence on the choice of life pursuit is Nature.  A person must remain consistent to their nature for that is part of the essence of decorum.  It is nice to follow a parent's footsteps but should avoid their faults.  May not be able to do so but can still pursue justice, fides, self control, etc.

There are different duties for each age of life.  Youth should model themselves after quality relatives and spend time with their elders. Older people put forth less labor but more thinking.  Living luxuriously should be avoided at all costs, particularly by older people.  Magistrates must understand that they represent the state and uphold its honor.  This propriety which Cicero discusses is evident in every word, deed, bodily movement and attitude.

The physical nature of a human body fits characteristics of Nature- nature covers what should not be public.  It is good to produce children but to use the word in public is obscene.  He uses actors as an example who make sure that their private parts remain private.

Not all paths are obvious.

There are two parts of beauty:

1.  Charm

2.  Dignity

These are maintained by good exercise. Self-control is essential to maintain both aspects of beauty. Propriety extends to speech in public and conversation.  The voice should be clear and musical.  This can manifest itself in varying ways with different people.  Rules for conversation are to be polite, not a hog, pleasant.  Even the choice of house should reflect its usefulness and dignity must be adorned by the house BUT one must not rely on the house.  The house should be made honorable by the owner.

Leaders need to be careful what impression their house presents.  People remember the lavash house of Lucullus but no one remembers the excellent qualities he had.

Three important principals:

1.  Appetite obeys reason.

2.  Match level of interest to importance of quest

3. Observe moderation

Stoic definition of modestia- knowledge of placing those things in their proper spot which are done and said.

Our conduct must be of such a kind that it is suitable and fitting just as in a quality speech.  Just as a harp even slightly out of tune is noticed maybe not by everyone but by those who know, so the conduct of our life must be in tune with our nature and propriety at all times.  We should watch to see how others react to these actions and model ours on what is accepted.  Just as a artist looks for approval from the public we should do the same.

The same license is not granted to all as was to someone like Socrates.  People like that created their own niche via reputation and fame.  We ought to cherish, protect the common association and union of all people.

Any job disliked generally should be avoided such as a tax gatherer.  Trade is ok if it benefits a large group.

All that is honorable is derived from one of these four:

1.  Cognitio (learning)

2.  Social ties

3. Courage

4. Restraint

The pursuit of justice is closer to Nature of a human than the acquisition of knowledge - this is his proof:

If a person could study as he/she wished but would have no human contact, he/she would die.  Wisdom, the pursuit of truth, is the foremost of the virtues but Prudence is the knowledge of choosing and avoiding.  Pursuit of truth is knowledge of divine and human things and in this is contained what brings understanding of humans/gods.  Pursuit of truth gives us knowledge but prudence puts it to use.  Knowledge is lame and unfinished if action is not a consequence.  Even if figuring out the answer to the origin of the universe, a person would drop everything to save one's country or friend.

Learning for learning's sake is selfish. Speech embraces a large community of people.  Just as bees cluster by nature to make a hive, so humans bring action and thought together because these are gregarious by nature.  That virtue which guides unions of association is more important than knowledge alone.

It is not true that we form human society because all of our wants can not be met by us alone.  If all needs of food and shelter were met and one could devote a life to study that person would desire to escape and be with people to share, teach, learn.

The greatest duty is that which directly protects society.  But is society always to be preferred over moderation?  No.

How to balance these four to achieve moral goodness but what do we do when there are two choices, both honorable?  Which of the two is more honorable?  Is an act planned base or honorable?

718. Roman Bridges by Colin O'Connor

PONS AEMILIUS BUT NOW CALLED PONTE ROTTO

718.  Roman Bridges by Colin O’Connor.  This is a book well worth reading.  He begins:

The Romans did not invent bridges or roads but were the first to develop a system.  Bridges and roads go together for obvious reasons.  

A bridge is valued for reasons of its beauty, function, social reasons as it promotes trade, communication.  It also helps to create towns, cities. For the Romans bridges also possess religious significance.  Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, caused the construction of the Pons Sublicius.  Its construction and care were placed under the care of a priest, pontifex.  Pontifex means bridge builder.  Romans were animists and believed that rivers possessed a divinity and this divinity required permission to be crossed.

Romans avoided steep grades, often following river valleys.  They minimized river crossings and stayed on one side until a crossing was necessary or one road met another at right angles near a river.

O’Connor periodically covers briefly Roman history and then juxtaposes that history with road and bridge construction up to that time.

Rome commanded the Tiber River as it empties into the Mediterranean Sea.  To the north is Etruria which consisted of a league of 12 cities from the Tiber R. to the Arno River (in modern Florence).  To the south was/is Latium.  The people there had the same language as Rome.  This area stretches from the Tiber to the Pomptine Marshes and the Lepini Mts. just beyond Cape Circeo.

Rome grew under the Etruscan leaders it had.  In 530 BC the Cloaca Maxima was built this was a large open drain which made the area now called forum useable.  It was covered in the 4th century BC.  Tarquin (called the Proud by the Romans) was booted by the Romans in 510 BC.  He was not happy about this and went to Caere.  There he convinced Porsenna, the king of Clusium to help him regain his throne.

When Porsenna marched on Rome his ability to cross the river was hindered by the famous stand of Publius Horatius Cocles and his two friends, Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius on the Pons Sublicius.  It is likely that inspite of the courage of Horatius, Porsenna occupied Rome.  But in 506 BC at the Battle of Aricia, the Latins defeated the Etruscans and at this point the Latin League was formed.  In 493 BC Rome and the Latin League combined.  In 360 there were some members of the league unhappy and this war, Rome won.

In 479 BC Rome attacked Fidenae in Etruria and failed.  But since Fidenae was critical for the security of Rome, it was taken in 426 BC.  In 405 BC Rome attacked Veii, the last Etruscan stronghold at Rome’s doorstep and took it in 396 BC.  

Rome’s advance into the south (remember the Latin League) involved them in three wars against the Samnians.  

The 1st Samnite War lasted from 343 to 341 BC.  The Sabellian tribe was absorbed.  The reason for this war was, as so many in which Rome was involved, the request of a nearby city.  The war began when Capua sought help from Rome against the Samnites.  Rome helped but the war was indecisive.  The 2nd Samnite war was fought 326 to 304 BC.  Rome was defeated at the Caudine Forks which is between Capua and Beneventum and at Lautulae.  At this point Capua joined the Samnites but Rome retook Capua in 314 BC.  In 304 BC the Samnites asked for peace.  3rd Samnite War was fought in 298 BC.  Lucania asked Rome for help.  The Samnites formed an army and it arrived north of Rome where the Romans defeated it at Sentinum.  Roman power stretched from Ancona on the Adriatic Sea to the Gulf of Tarentum.

Tarentum was concerned about the advance of Rome and formed an alliance with Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus in Greece.  The war lasted from 280 to 275 BC.  At Beneventum, the Romans won a major victory to win the war.  

Back to bridges.

The Romans built the Via Appia from Rome to Terracina on the Tyrrhenian coast, then to Minturnae, then to Capua and finally all the way to Brundisium on the heal of Italy.  In 314 the Romans retook Capua toward the end of the 2nd Samnite War.  So the Via is strategic for Roman security.  But it quickly became a trade route.  There is disagreement on when the road was paved but O’Connor is convinced that it was a substantial road from the beginning.  The road through the Pomptine Marshes was frequently flooded, parts of the road required boat transport.  Years later at Terracina, Trajan built a rock cut path for the Via Appia, visible today.  The road went through the pass at Lautulae (where the Romans were defeated) and crossed the Liris River (Garigliano)  The Romans established a colony at Brundisium in 244, thus the road was probably completed to that point by 264 BC.  From Beneventum there is a northern route along the Adriatic and this may be the Via Minturnae mentioned by Cicero.  These roads secured the area both for the Romans and for the inhabitants.  These also provided a means of trade and communication. The area south of Rome was secure.

The Via Annia joined Capua to Rhegium.  Parallel to Annia is Via Domitiana (imperial road) giving access to Puteloli (Pozzuoli).  This area had the valuable ash which Romans added to concrete to allow the concrete to dry in wet environment.  In the same area is Via Herculia.  It is a late road.

The Via Salaria began at the Pons Sulpicius and followed the Tiber.  This road was important as a trade route.  The Via Latina is connected with the fight against the Aequi for the pass at Algidus.  A battle was fought there in 431 BC.  This is the battle at which Cincinnatus, elected dictator in an emergency, was victorious.  The Via Valeria was built in 307 BC to Carsioli and a colony established in 303 BC.  The Via Clodia went north at Satrum to help control the area.  Via America went north to Horta in 240 BC.  The Via Cassia went north to Florentia (Florence). The Via Aurelia went north along the coast on the west side of Italy.  The initial road was constructed by Caius Claudius Cotta in 241 BC. Eventually this road was extended all the way to Spain.  The area north of Rome was secure.

More history.  In 276 BC Rome had control from Eturia to Brundisium.  Messana on the tip facing of Sicily facing Italy was attacked by Hiero, the King of Syracuse.  Messana asked Rome for help.  Thus the 1st Punic War, for there was a strong Carthaginian presence in Sicily.  Rome had naval victories at Mylae in 260 BC and at Ecnomus in 256 BC.  Rome invade Africa in 256 BC.  It was here that Marcus Atilius Regulus was captured and displayed such courage.  But Rome won the war and Sicily was seeded to Rome.  Soon after Sardinia and Corsica were acquired.  

In the north.  Gauls crossed the Alpes into Italy, advanced south and defeated the Romans at Allia River in 390 BC.  After a ransom was paid (all this was was a plundering expedition), the Gauls withdrew.  In the 3rd Samnite War the Samnites were aided by people in the area of Sentinum north of Rome. Thus at the end of the 1st Punic War the Gauls again invade Italy and made it all the way to Telemon on the Adriatic coast just below Ravenna.  The Romans drove them back and began establishing colonies along the Po River.  By 220 BC Placentia, Cremona, Luna and Genoa had been established.

Roads.  Thus the Via Flaminia.  This road left Rome at Pons Mulvius.  It was built by Flaminus when Censor in 220 BC.  The road was extended to Ariminum on the Adriatic.  There is a Roman tunnel through the Furlo Pass. 

History-  In Spain Saguntum asked for an alliance with Rome.  Granted.  The 2nd Punic War commenced when Hannibal besieged the city.  Hannibal initially victorious in Italy, his reinforcements were defeated at the Metaurus River (Romans would have been helped by the Via Flaminia).  The Romans were also successful in Spain and Africa.  The war was over in 202 BC.  After this war the Gaull in northern Italy attacked colonies in northern Italy.  2 armies were sent and were victorious.  

Romans added new roads.  Via Annia (two by that name)  which went from Aquilia to Bologna.  Via Postumia went from Genoa to Verona.  Via Popilia went from Ariminum to Ravenna.

In the beginning the sea was the easy route to Gaul.  The Romans had a long, valuable alliance with Massilia.  The rivers were used as trade and convenience up the Rhone.  But after Arausio October 6, 105 BC where the Romans were defeated by the Gauls.   The Romans won at Vercellae and Aquae Sextiae soon after.  There were and had been for far more than a hundred years major problems with Gauls.  So the Romans took the whole of far southern France.  A network of roads were built.

In Spain a network of roads for strategic reasons and commerce- there were mineral deposits of gold, silver, copper, mercury and iron in Spain.

Northwest Africa saw the construction of roads for defense, commerce and agriculture.

In AD 43 Britain was invaded.  A web of roads was built.  

Builders of roads

In the Republic the roads were built by 12 consuls, 6 censors and 2 praetors.  Appius and others may have done more than just say build the road.  There are two reasons for this:  the highest ranks of Roman elective service required training and experience as of 180 BC.  Some expectations surely exited previous to this. The lowest office was that of Quaestor.  Minimum age was 25.  Next Curule Aedile at an age of 36.  The Praetor required an age of 39 and the consulship 42.  Before these offices were pursued, the Romans had a habit of expecting those on the move to serve as assistants to general, governors and office holders.

There is another reason that people such as Appius knew more than just how to say build the road.  Marcus Vipsanius Agippa, 2nd in command to Augustus, supervised the construction of a fleet, equipment, was responsible for two aqueducts, the cleaning of the cloaca maxima (for this he actually boarded a row boat and personally looked at the cloaca and the Pons Agrippae.  He had a map made of the entire empire with details of cities, roads, terrain.  The ruins of his bridge can be seen 160 meters northwest of Ponte Sisto in Rome. Agrippa’s interests show that he was more than an administrator.  Sextus Julius Frontinus wrote on surveying, the art of war, military science, farming, boundaries, roads, colonies and aqueducts. This last survives, De Aquis.  He was consul, general, writer and governor.  In the De Aquis he states that he had a habit of learning everything he could about whatever he was assigned. Pliny the Younger, when he was governor in Bithynia in northern Turkey went on site to the springs for an aqueduct to figure out a problem.  When younger, he was in charge of the drains and Tiber in Rome.

The Curator Viarum, caretaker of roads, was an important position.  Apparently it was not a political payoff position.  In most cases this position followed the Praetorship.  Engineers (fabri) often came from the army.  These people would have had a great deal of experience.

Labor was supplied by soldier, slaves, free citizens.  There was a huge carpenter association in Rome called the collegium fabrum tignuariorum.  

So O’Connor’s point seems to be that many people in positions of building knew a fair amount about the job before they took on the position.  (I know from reading Cicero’s letters, for example that he clearly knew a great deal about architecture and construction.)

Roman Technology

There are designer constraints:  ability to shape the material, transport and handle.  Roman tools:  hammer, axe, adze, pick, drill, file.  For these a hardened iron was essential.  The old view that the Romans only borrowed and had poor regard for practical skills are buried by the evidence presented by O’Connor.  He shows that there was no shortage of ideas, skills and principles as evidenced by what they built.  He interestingly works backwards to prove this, since no manuals survive.  

Romans lacked extensive mechanical power, hard metals.  And for the Romans employment was a major concern.  And not having a modern capitalist system, they did not want to eliminate workers.  A large cash of tools was found in Scotland and huge numbers of nails of all sizes. These indicate the existence of some kind of assembly line set up.

They possessed great skill in ship building.  Frames were held together by wooden pegs.  Planks held in place by pegs.  Planks were mounted edge to edge, not overlapping, with biscuit wedges.  The wooden pegs holding the planks were pierced by bronze spikes to make a very tight fit.  It is clear that the spikes were made in bulk.  So his point is that there must have been some kind of production system in place to do this.  He also gives high marks for such ship construction.

The Romans knew of the male screw but not of the female nut.

To give a comparison O’Connor mentions that in 1586 the obelisk of Nero’s Circus was moved 240 meters by Fontana. It weighed 310 tons. It took five months and was considered a great feat.  The Romans had moved this obelisk down the Nile River, across the Mediterranean and by land to Rome.  By the way the ancients made rope to the same standards as modern rope.  

There is a crane carved on the tomb of Haterius.  It is in the Vatican Lateran Museum.

In the construction of bridges there was need for a reach of 15 to 18 meters from pier to pier.  The Romans as the tomb shows and the bridge makes clear had the equipment to move large rock the distance and also possessed the pile drivers necessary to create a means to install piers in the middle of a river.  Oak piles have been found with iron tips embeded in rivers.  The Romans some how learned of pozzolana (a tufa, volcanic rock) which allows concrete to harden in wet areas.  It also made Roman concrete very hard, even by modern standards.

Tufa with lava, white limestone and other elements is called peperino.  Travertine is a form of limestone.  It is easily damaged by fire but as bridge material, no problem.  The Pons Mulvius is made from it (109BC).

There are 91 bridges in Italy.  32 use Travertine, 29 use limestone, 23 use tufa, 7 use a conglomerate.  The Romans apparently figured out that the hardest stone did not make the best material for bridges.  Does this make sense?  It will.

A stone with a high proportion of very small pores is less durable than stone with large pores.  Large pores allow space for trapped moisture to expand and contract without doing damage.  The saws used by the Romans to cut limestone, etc. was used well into modern times.  Sand was washed into a cut by water flow.  The different styles of stone laying indicates a knowledge about the material and an ability to adapt different methods to different needs.

Concrete.

Calcium carbonate (lime) is burnt.  Burnt lime is calcium oxide.  When water is added to it it is calcium hydroxide.  This reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form calcium carbonate.  Add pozzolana and it hardens in water.  Pozzolana causes the lime to be taken up and this adds strength.  The Romans had little idea of the chemistry but knew the results.

The Romans kept aggregate separate from the concrete mix.  These were mixed together at the site.  The Romans liked to lay brick molds, a wall in which to place the concrete.  These were made simultaneously to make sure that the wall which served a s a mold (and pleasant visible surface if so desired) bonded.

In vaulting and such timber was used to form the molds.  In bridges exposed concrete is not used.  The durability of Roman concrete is famous and in some cases it is better than modern concrete. But the physical structure and pore size count more than simple strength.  Roman concrete contains air holes which help to reduce internal pressure due to freezing and thawing.  Crystals which absorb salts also do less damage.

Romans used timber for centering, scaffolding, cranes and for final structures they did build many bridges out of wood and for good reason as we shall see). Romans were well aware of the qualities of different woods.  Vitruvius lists twenty different kinds of timber.  The strongest was ash (fraxinus).

The surveying tools were the groma.  It allowed a straight line to be followed or right angle.  There was a leveling device, chordates and the dipotra which was more elaborate.  Typically aqueducts dropped 1 foot for 500 feet.  Try to imagine the problems of maintaining this over up even terrain with rivers, ravines and mountains.  The Romans also had a hodometer.  A carriage with 4 wheels, each wheel four feet in diameter.  400 revolutions of the wheel caused a drum to rotate 1 time.  A stone in the drum fell out into a bronze container.  The noise would indicate one Roman mile (5,000 feet).

Computations.

Did Romans produce drawings?  Yes.  The tools to do so survive.  The Abacus makes it clear that the Romans could add, subtract, multiply and divide by simple numbers.

Masonry Bridges.

Pons Mulvius- the Via Flaminia begins here.  It has 6 spans.  Spans 2 and 3 are faced with Travertine.  Livy mentions this bridge (27.51.2).  M. Aemilius Scaurus restored it in 109 BC.  There are flood openings in the middle of some piers to relieve the strain during floods.  

Pons Fabricius was built in 62 BC.

Ponte Rotto was built in 179 BC.  Marcus Fulvius Nobilior and M. Aemilius Lepidus were the Censors.  The original one had a timber deck.  The stone arches now visible were added by Scipio and Mummius in 142 BC  (This is the Scipio which captured Carthage in the 3rd Punic.)

The oldest bridge is the Pons Sublicius.  600 BC.  It was made out of wood.  One was still there is AD 400.  No longer exists.  Evidently it was maintained as a wooden bridge for centuries.  It was located near Forum Boarium, down stream from the Pons Aemilius.

Ponte del Diavolo.  One arch rib remains.  It connected to Via Latina which connected Cassinum with Interamna Lirenas.  Near Arpinum it crossed the Liris via Ponte Marmone (This is the bridge near Cicero’s home).

Ponte di Sperlonga is unusual.  Built 1st century BC. 

Past Minturnae Via Appia heads to Sessa Aurunca.  And there in a farmer's field is Pons Aurunca, 1 kilometer west of town.  Follow right bank of the stream down from a minor road which leads to route 7.  Access is along old Via Appia. 

Via Flaminia has more bridges than any other road.  But it is sad to see how many bridges were destroyed during World War II.

Gaul- roads came later here.  Water ways had provided means of commerce and travel.

Spain perhaps the greatest of all Roman bridges is here- Alcantara over the Tagus River is spectacular.  Merida may be the longest, Puente Romano, 3,000 feet plus.

Turkey

There is an arch in a theater with voussoirs stepped at mid length, perhaps to deal with earthquakes.  This technique may have been used in bridges.  But it certainly shows Roman attention to various variables.  There is a bridge at Kahta, one of the largest spans at 34.2 meter.  The largest surviving is Pont St. Martin at 35.6 meter.

Timber Bridges

Very common.  There was plenty of lumber.  There was technology to cut and work wood.  Quick to build.  Besides Romans built wooden structures to hold stones in place as stone bridge was built.  Columns in Rome show wooden bridges.  In Great Britain there were numerous.  For sure wooden bridges were built first when a road was first constructed.  Are there other reasons for wooden bridges? Romans did not build bridges out of stone near seas.  

The columns of Trajan and Aurelius make clear that the Roman army owed as much to the spade as to the sword.  The carving accurately reflect bridges and physical evidence has been found.  The mason for the columns clearly copied from sketch books to display the bridges.

It is possible that Apollodorus may have used trusses on his bridge across the Danube, perhaps the greatest bridge the Romans ever built and that out of wood.  Timber girder bridges are found on the columns.  There is precedent.  Caesar built a timber bridge across the Rhine in 10 days.  It may have been 260 meters long. Apollodorus' bridge- one pier remains.  It crossed the Danube.  Dio Cassius says that there were 20 piers 150 ft high, 60 ft wide and 170 feet apart.  It was about 3,600 feet long.  

Via Appia at Minturnae crosses the Liris (Garigliano ).  Here was the Pons Tirenus.  It was built in 295 BC.  It was known to exist in AD 548.  The Romans used wood where stone was not suitable.

More evidence of application of rules for construction:

The Romans used inverted syphon when bridge height required exceeded 45.7 meter.  Such a height made a bridge impractacle.

Romans used two kinds of aqueduct designs.  One- used numerous arches with short spans for long stretches across gentle valleys.  Two- large spans across large rivers to reduce number of spans.

Rules for bridge design.  This was difficult for me, I did not understand the math.  But did try to get the implications.

The rules appear only by studying the bridges.  

Abutments (end of bridges) constructed first.

Then the foundation for the piers.

Then the piers.

The arch ribs consist of springing voussoirs with radial joints. and keystone.  The underside of the arch rib is called intrados and the upper is called extrados.  The space between the one extrados and the next is the spandrel.  This was filled in either with dirt of concrete.  The weight of the spandrel pushes down and sideways.  The arch pushes inward.  Thus there is a balance.  The end pieces must be wider to help control the end arches.

Virtuvius says 3 types of foundations:

1.  Build directly on the surface on solid material.

2.  Timber piles driven into soft earth

3.  Foundation on water with forms made of beams driven into the water.  Water is pumped out and the space filled with concrete or masonry.

Piers could have vaults piercing in order to deal with floods.  Triangles pointed up stream to break the force of water. The thickness of the piers is 1/3 of the span distance.  Sometimes it is 1/2 and a few 1/5.  The Romans clearly understood the relation between the two.

Arch design.

Arch consists of arch rib, spandrel and material in the spandrel.  Ratio of rib thickness to span is important.  Ranges from 1/10 to 1/20.  This is a wide range.  How does this indicates that Romans had a sense of arch design?  If a span is 50 ft or less, most bridges are 1/10.  

A voussoir with a width of 3 1/2 feet by 5 ft by 5 ft would weigh 9,438 lbs.  This is near the limit of what a crane could handle.  But the keystone of the Ponte Manlio is is 20,328 lbs.  So there must have been special cranes developed for unusual situations.

O’Connor demolishes the idea that segmented arches came to Europe from the Chinese.  In China there is a bridge built in AD 600 which is segmented.  There are far too many segmented bridges in Europe from the Roman period to allow this.  Prime example is Apollodorus bridge across the Danube.  It clearly is segmented.

Roman Ribs.

Different types.

Most common- stretcher bonds with staggered rows.

Arch construction.

Cane could reach 11.5 meter.  First bridge was usually of wood.  This allowed materials and equipment to be moved about.

My observation- it is clear that Romans mastered the problem of form and function.  For those aspects of a bridge which add texture with its shadowing and appeal are directly related to the function and construction of the bridge.

Falsework (the wooden framework which held stone in place until ready to take on the weight of the bridge) supports are often found part way up the springing voussoirs because these could be constructed without support.  Many place survive on bridges where protruding stone was used to support falsework or the holes into which supports for falsework was placed.  Thus the spandrel may have been filled before arch rib was completed.  It may have added strength.  Falsework could maintain huge pressure, so when it was removed, there must have been a way to do so without causing pressure on the stone about in uneven ways.  It is important to remember with cranes that two may have worked on opposite ends of an arch.

Analysis of an arch.

O’Connor here gives mathematical explanation for ability of Roman arches to function.  It was beyond me.

Conclusion.

The Romans probably built thousands of bridges.  Their achievement is measured by shear numbers, extent (all over Europe, Asia, Africa) technology.  It is good to remember that spans achieved by the Romans were not exceeded until 1755.  “The most successful, extensive and lasting of all human, material achievements”.