719. De Officiis, bk I by Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero writes this for his son, Marcus, who was studying in Athens. Cicero quickly makes the point that knowledge (scientia) goes hand in hand with examples. What better place than Athens to be reminded of examples of great people? But Cicero's caution in urging his son to study helps to make this piece universal. What parent would not want the same? So again, as Cicero so often does, his intro/setting has more than what meets the eye.
Cicero suggests that his son's Latin will improve by reading his father's philosophical works. It does not seem that this is bragging so much as honesty- for Cicero yields to others superiority in philosophy but in terms of speaking clearly, suitably and elegantly- that is Cicero's own. It is clear from this that Cicero is using this to combine philosophy and thought with style. For him these are inseparable.
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| All aspects of a good life are intertwined |
…in eoque colendo sita vitae est honestas omnis et neglendo turpitudo.
= and in cherishing duty all that is morally good of life has been placed and in neglecting duty all that is wrong.
To add force to his comment Cicero places vitae in the midst of the verb sita est.
Every philosophical system lays down precepts for duty. The only philosophical system which can establish rules of conduct are those which say that moral goodness (honestum) is worth seeking for its own sake or especially.
Cicero intends to follow the Stoic system- not as a translator for he intends to draw from his own well.
But first duty must be defined. This part of the passage is missing but the Loeb edition suggests:
Everything which is done using reason is an officium. So for Cicero officium (duty/obligation) is applying reason to actions taken. Officium combines thought and action.
There are two parts to duty:
1. The supreme good or the greatest good
2. guiding rules for conduct
Cicero will primarily cover number 2 in this work, but first will make an argument for 1.
There are two categories for duty: medium and perfectum. Medium are those which are ordinary or neutral but perfectum is an obligated duty which is called morally right (rectum). In other words there are some things which we do which has no moral consequence- such as whether to buy a bagel or sour dough (medium). Some acts, such as whether to abide by an agreement, carry the weight of moral goodness (perfectum).
Panaetius, a stoic philosopher, says that deliberation (deciding what to do) is 3 fold:
1. Must decide whether an act is morally right or wrong
2. Then ponder if the planned act is for their own benefit/advantage
3. Then ponder when what they want to do seems to conflict with what is morally right (honorable).
Cicero adds:
4. Of two morally right plans which is superior?
5. Of two advantageous plans which is more advantageous?
Every animal looks to its own survival and avoids what appears harmful, each seeks the means for survival: food, shelter, etc. Every animal desires to produce young and provides some kind of care for these. Cicero differentiates between animals and humans: animals are moved by their sense and possess little grasp of the future. Humans possess reason which perceives the causes of things, consequences, cause and effect, compares similarities and applies these to the present situation and views the whole course of life and makes preparation for living it.
Nature by this power of reason unites human to human both by the alliance of speech and fellowship of life, she instills a love of offspring, nature persuades humans to be part of and engaged in meetings and festivals. Because of these interests, Nature makes a human eager to provide for food for self, children, family. This produces courage.
The pursuit of truth is peculiar to humans. When obligations are fulfilled, humans want to learn and humans consider it contemplation necessary to live well. This activity allows humans to learn what is true and genuine. The desire of truth produces an appetite for independence. As a result, a well trained mind desires to obey no one except to be obedient to someone who is teaching or for practical reasons top someone giving orders. From this pursuit of truth comes enhanced understanding of life and scorn for problems of life.
Humans alone possess a sense of order, existence and restraint in word and deed. All animals possess sight but only humans perceive beauty, charm, harmony. From this has developed a sense that order, beauty, harmony must be observed in our plans and actions by our very nature. And Nature makes us beware of doing anything in a weak or wimpy manner and to do what we do with forethought. This is moral goodness- to access our nature, search for truth and live by those high standards determined by our human traits.
Moral goodness arrises from one of these four:
1. Perception of the truth (Truth)
2. In guarding society, a faithful execution of reasoned justice (Justice)
3. In courage (Courage)
4. In moderation/restraint (Temperance)
Truth- The pursuit of truth produces good sense and wisdom. The other three virtues have to do with protecting society, increasing wealth and not placing too much value on things. These require physical activity in addition to mental. By pursuing these humans will preserve moral goodness.
The pursuit of truth is closely connected to human nature. Two faults just be avoided:
1. We must not assume that we know what we do not know.
2. We should not devote too much time to useless things.
If our studies draw us away from a life active in community/society, this is wrong. Why? Every virtue consists in action. We may be drawn away but only temporarily. Our minds toil even when we are unaware.
Last three virtues require thinking by which union of humans is maintained.
Justice- We should do harm to no one, unless provoked, use common things for common purposes and private things for private purposes. But Cicero fully realized that in Nature there is no such thing as private property.
As Plato said we were born not just for ourselves but our country claims a part and family and friends. All animals have been created for human benefit but humans have been created for humans.
The rock of justice is good faith. There are two kinds of injustice- inflicting wrong and doing nothing to stop injustice. Sometimes wrongs are committed when an individual figures that if he does not cause harm, the other will do it first. But most harm is caused by greed. Greed places great store in objects of expense and produces a desire for more money. Ambition for power and office and fame causes forgetfulness of justice. The more talent that a person possesses and the more ambition, the more carefully such a person must be.
Premeditation is far worse than a a crime committed on the spur of the moment.
Plato said that philosophers because the pursue truth are just. True says Cicero and they do no direct harm but they abandon those they should protect. Plato- philosophers should participate in political life only is forced. Cicero- it is more just to participate voluntarily for it is right only of done of free will.
What about those who only attend to their affairs? They abandon the partnership of life because they make no effort with the means they have. It is difficult to know when to get involved. If there is any doubt, it is best to do nothing for we know when it is the right thing to do.
Duty changes as situations emerge. Thus it is not right to keep all promises. For example I may promise to return an item when requested and under most circumstances should do so. However, if a demand is made for the return and it is felt that the item may be used to cause harm, it should not be returned.
Cleverness in law in order to dupe is condemned.
Some duties exist on our part toward others who have wronged us. There must be a limit to punishment.
War is only justified when discussion is not possible and we can not live in peace without it. There are strict rules of engagement with the enemy and who it is that can fight the enemy.
Generosity is part of justice. There is a caution here- must not harm the person upon whom we bestow the kindness or to others. Kindness should not exceed our resources, should be geared to what the received deserves. Whoever does harm in act of giving or harms another in order to generous to others is bad news.
Many think that whoever robs one to benefit another that these will seem kind to friends. This is contrary to duty for generosity should harm no one. Sulla's and Caesar's transfer to someone of money rightfully belonging to someone else is not generosity nor justice.
We should not be so generous that we give away what should be for relatives and such generosity leads to taking what belongs to them.
The person receiving the kindness needs to be assessed in terms of character and what they have done for us.
We do not live among perfect people, therefore should admire those who display indication of virtue. The more someone displays a sense of reserve, restraint, justice, the more affection we should feel. Cicero does not list courage in anyone who has not attained a sense of the other three virtues. For courage without the other three is merely a mark of impetuosity.
We do not measure kindness by intensity but by its consistency. No duty is more important than showing gratitude.
There are two kinds of generosity
1. Giving a kindness
2. Returning one
A spur of the moment generosity does not carry same responsibility for requital as that which has been thought out carefully. As regards someone who deserves it, the more they are in need, the more they should receive. Most people help those from whom they hope to receive the most, even though those have little need. The union of people is best served by conferring kindness on those closest.
The essence of society is bound up in the characteristics of human nature. The fundamental characteristics of human nature is speech and reason. Teaching, learning, conversation, argument, decisions join human to human. Thus in a way, society is natural. Private property is just that but all else is that shared among fellow humans.
Whatever kindness can be given without personal loss should be given: to share water right, fire, good advice. There should be contributions to as many people as possible as long as the present generosity does not impair future generosity. There are shared things: forum, temples, porticoes, roads, statutes, laws, courts, voting rights, associations, numerous contracts of business, etc.
The reproductive instinct creates the first union- marriage. Then children, house, things shared. The family expands and there are cousins, 2nd cousins. These expand to other houses, other marriages, connections. This is the origin of the state.
Justice and generosity produce friendship which in a sense are modeled on those ties of family to family. What could be more dear than country which makes all the above possible. Only a monster would rend its fabric. Country and friendship are closely connected. Almost as though one cannot exist without the other.
Circumstances call upon different duties or obligations. But no virtue is worth anything without use and practice.
The Stoic definition of fortitude- a virtue which fights for what is right. Courage must be morally right to be true courage. Courage without justice and love of truth is simple audacity. Courage alone can produce a desire for pre-eminence. In this is born a desire for conquest. However much such a person excels in greatness of courage so much more that person is eager to be pre-eminent. Whoever desires to be superior to all others has difficulty preserving a sense of equality which is essential for justice. From this it happens that such people allow themselves to be restrained by debate, argument, public authority. They want unlimited powers and to be superior by force rather than equal via justice, true courage and prevent injury.
Greatness of spirit manifests itself in deeds not fame. Whoever claims greatness based on judgement of the inexperienced must not be classed among the great. There are two parts to courage: 1. to be above bad fortune. 2. Brave deeds. #2 is useful but #1 makes people great.
The life of philosophers and teachers are of great value to society but easier and safer. But those who have no excuse are flawed for they exist only for themselves. They fear the difficult more and the potential for rejection. Those who possess talent have an obligation to use their ability for good. A leader/public official should conduct oneself with reserve, distain of ordinary human circumstance with a tranquil mind. Those involved in guiding the state have need for ways to unbend the mind. The goal should not be the office and its glory but an opportunity of being successful. They should not lose heart at failure or be too confident because of eagerness. Careful preparation must attend every endeavor.
Many think that war is the key to greatness. It is not. The story of Solon vs Themistocles is a valuable one. Solon created the system which allowed Themistocles to achieve his success. Weapons are useless without plan at home. A lofty mind is not measured by bodily strength but by moral courage. Moral goodness is in the care and contemplation of the mind. A steady and calm mind should face every crisis. Planning is less likely to contain mistakes when the mind is calm and collected.
No leader foolishly exposes oneself to danger but yet is willing to commit to a calculated risk in a dangerous situation. A leader must be willing to put oneself in danger rather than the state even if it entails losing the good will of the populace. Personal pride must give way to the needs of the state.
Omnino qui rei publicae praefuturi sunt, duo Platonis praecepta teneant, unum, ut utilitatem civium sic tueantur, ut, quaecumque agunt, ad eam referant obliti commodorum suorum, alterum, ut totum corpus rei publicae curent, ne, dum partem aliquam tuentur, reliquas deserant.
Whoever will be in charge of the state must operate by two precepts of Plato: one that they look out for the advantage of the citizens in such a way that whatever they do they forgetful of their own advantage base whatever they do on this, 2nd that look out for the needs of the whole state, in order that, while they protect one part, they may not abandon the rest.
Leaders must not listen to those who think that there must be serious anger with political enemies and give out that this is characteristic of a brave and courage person; nothing is more praiseworthy, nothing more dignified in a great and outstanding person than a readiness to forgive and mildness. Among a free people and in equality before the law, good nature and self control must be practiced in order that we should not stoop to harmful and hateful unpleasantness, if we should become angry either with people descending upon us at a bad time or asking questions rudely.
Snobbishness and haughtiness and arrogance should be avoided in a leader. Must not succumb to flattery.
Government service is most important but there are other ways to assist. Helping friends, assisting projects.
The remaining part of moral goodness is what is commonly called temperance. Cicero defines as modesty, the polish of life, temperance, and reserve and complete control of passions and restraint in all things. The Latin word he chooses is decorum. It in contrast to courage can not be separated from moral goodness. The difference between moral goodness and decorum (temperance) is that moral goodness must exist before decorum can show itself.
What decorum is is brought out in terms of the other three virtues: truth, justice and courage. I.e. to use reason and speech wisely and to act with consideration and deliberation, to examine what is true and care for it is proper- that is decorum. Decorum is only evident in light of the other virtues. Decorum can only be detected mentally.
There is a twofold description:
1. Decorum is evident in moral goodness
2. That decorum which pertains to each virtue individually- i.e. what is in harmony with what it is to be human.
Examples: poets display decorum when a character in a play says what is appropriate for that character. Nature has assigned to us what is decorum in light of those qualities peculiar to their being human. Modesty and restraint are part of being human and nature instructs these not to be neglected. Thus decorum possesses a wide range of activity. That aspect of duty which is decorum provides a road which leads to the harmony and preservation of a person's nature. Thus truth will be preserved and the union of one human to another (justice) and courage.
The essence of decorum is in temperantia in which bodily movement and mental make up are connected.
There are two parts to the mind:
1. Appetite which pulls us this way and that and
2. Reason which teaches what must be avoided and done.
When appetites prevail we loose that serenity and reserve which is so characteristic of human nature. Why? Reason is the definitive characteristic of a human and appetite disturbs the natural arrangement that reason rules the appetite. It is fine and dandy to play after all duties have been met. Wittiness and cleverness are the goal but never crudity or rudeness.
Physical pleasure is ok but measured by usefulness for health not pleasure.
Humans are endowed by Nature with two aspects:
1. Reason which separates us from animals and is the basis on which moral goodness rests.
2. The peculiar characteristics of each person- some are serious, others jovial, etc.
Part of decorum is fitting one's personal personality to human nature. If there is something called decorum, then consistency not only in one's whole life but also in particular action for imitating the nature of someone else one can not preserve one's own decorum. Each person must find a way to adjust their personality to their nature as Ajax and Odysseus. We should be at least as consistent as actors who choose not the best plays but those most suitable to themselves.
There are two more aspects to the nature of a person Cicero mentions in 107.
3. That which arrises in a crisis and
4. that which we choose for ourselves.
This should give an idea why propriety is difficult to nail down. Deciding what is the best course for our life is most difficult for that is done when we are young and immature.
The most powerful influence on the choice of life pursuit is Nature. A person must remain consistent to their nature for that is part of the essence of decorum. It is nice to follow a parent's footsteps but should avoid their faults. May not be able to do so but can still pursue justice, fides, self control, etc.
There are different duties for each age of life. Youth should model themselves after quality relatives and spend time with their elders. Older people put forth less labor but more thinking. Living luxuriously should be avoided at all costs, particularly by older people. Magistrates must understand that they represent the state and uphold its honor. This propriety which Cicero discusses is evident in every word, deed, bodily movement and attitude.
The physical nature of a human body fits characteristics of Nature- nature covers what should not be public. It is good to produce children but to use the word in public is obscene. He uses actors as an example who make sure that their private parts remain private.
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| Not all paths are obvious. |
There are two parts of beauty:
1. Charm
2. Dignity
These are maintained by good exercise. Self-control is essential to maintain both aspects of beauty. Propriety extends to speech in public and conversation. The voice should be clear and musical. This can manifest itself in varying ways with different people. Rules for conversation are to be polite, not a hog, pleasant. Even the choice of house should reflect its usefulness and dignity must be adorned by the house BUT one must not rely on the house. The house should be made honorable by the owner.
Leaders need to be careful what impression their house presents. People remember the lavash house of Lucullus but no one remembers the excellent qualities he had.
Three important principals:
1. Appetite obeys reason.
2. Match level of interest to importance of quest
3. Observe moderation
Stoic definition of modestia- knowledge of placing those things in their proper spot which are done and said.
Our conduct must be of such a kind that it is suitable and fitting just as in a quality speech. Just as a harp even slightly out of tune is noticed maybe not by everyone but by those who know, so the conduct of our life must be in tune with our nature and propriety at all times. We should watch to see how others react to these actions and model ours on what is accepted. Just as a artist looks for approval from the public we should do the same.
The same license is not granted to all as was to someone like Socrates. People like that created their own niche via reputation and fame. We ought to cherish, protect the common association and union of all people.
Any job disliked generally should be avoided such as a tax gatherer. Trade is ok if it benefits a large group.
All that is honorable is derived from one of these four:
1. Cognitio (learning)
2. Social ties
3. Courage
4. Restraint
The pursuit of justice is closer to Nature of a human than the acquisition of knowledge - this is his proof:
If a person could study as he/she wished but would have no human contact, he/she would die. Wisdom, the pursuit of truth, is the foremost of the virtues but Prudence is the knowledge of choosing and avoiding. Pursuit of truth is knowledge of divine and human things and in this is contained what brings understanding of humans/gods. Pursuit of truth gives us knowledge but prudence puts it to use. Knowledge is lame and unfinished if action is not a consequence. Even if figuring out the answer to the origin of the universe, a person would drop everything to save one's country or friend.
Learning for learning's sake is selfish. Speech embraces a large community of people. Just as bees cluster by nature to make a hive, so humans bring action and thought together because these are gregarious by nature. That virtue which guides unions of association is more important than knowledge alone.
It is not true that we form human society because all of our wants can not be met by us alone. If all needs of food and shelter were met and one could devote a life to study that person would desire to escape and be with people to share, teach, learn.
The greatest duty is that which directly protects society. But is society always to be preferred over moderation? No.
How to balance these four to achieve moral goodness but what do we do when there are two choices, both honorable? Which of the two is more honorable? Is an act planned base or honorable?
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