752. Education in Ancient Rome by Stanley Bonner.

752.  Education in Ancient Rome by Stanley Bonner.  This has been a valuable book.  I wish that I had read this while I was teaching. 

Educatio in Latin means upbringing of a child both physically and morally.  Thus to be bene educatus meant well brought up.  Eruditus meant well educated.  This alone gives some insight into how Romans viewed education and the place of the family in the process.

Early Roman Upbringing.

The Sabines who lived very near Rome provide an example of early Roman upbringing.  These people were long admired for their frugal nature, hard work and rigorous life.  Varro, Cincinnatus and Appius Claudius for example were from the Sabine district.  The Sabines were admired by Cicero.  Husband and wife toiled side by side.  Here the full power of pater familias held sway.  But this official description is softened by reality.  Family, town members, officials played a major part.  The pater familias did not simply go of on his own.  These traits were shown by Romans: thrift, hard work and respect for family.  This caused them to think of something else besides themselves.

In such a society in the 3rd century BC there was room for intellectual efforts, not much, but some.

Education with the family 1

Cato the Elder taught his son, he did not turn over his education to a slave.  They tented together in all kinds of weather.  Cato would rush home from Senate meetings in time to bathe his son and put him to bed.  When the son was old enough Cato wrote out stories of heroes in large print so that he son could read with ease. Early on Cato noticed that his son was not suited to the rigorous life of the military, stepped back and urged him on in his interest of law.  Of course such an education was not available to all for all would not have the leisure time for such things.  Thus there was the practice of sending children to school.  

There is an image in Tacitus’ Dialogue on Oratory which gives the picture of a mother directly involved with her children’s education.  She used the help of a relative and the help of teachers.  Was this or what Cato did unusual?  

1.  Cornelia’s husband died after the birth of their 12th child.  She raised three: Sempronia, Gaius and Tiberius Gracchus.  She was well educated, an excellent speaker and conversationalist.

2.  Aurelia’s husband left her a widow when Caesar was 13.  She took the father’s place.

3.  Atia’s husband died in 58 BC.  She took over and raised the young Octavian.

Sometimes, depending on the circumstance, grandparents played an important part or uncles or aunts.  The variety is as extensive as human relationships. Scipio the Younger said that he learned at home more precepts than he did from books.

Only the Censors could interfere in the way Roman parents raised their children.  But even this took place in collaborative ways.  But to go beyond this level the family needed to go outside of the family.

Education within the family part 2

Greek teachers first came from Magna Graecia (southern Italy).  Livius Andronicus, a slave, came from Tarentum.  He taught the children of Livius Salvator.  He was set free.  Ennius came from Rudiae.  Both of these composed works and taught.  Both were probably teachers of Greek.  Aemilius Paullus had four children.  He took a deep interest in each.  Whenever possible he was present at their studies and drills.  He employed Greek learning but in Roman terms.

As a result of the 3rd Macedonian War many Greek captives came to Italy.  Crates of Mallos from Pergamum arrived in Rome as an ambassador, broke his leg and stayed for a while.  He introduced the Romans to the scholarly methods of the Alexandrians.  Then in 155 BC there was the Embassy from Athens:  Diogenes the Stoic of Babylon, Critolaus the Peripatetic and Carneades the Academic.  These gave lectures and Romans were enthralled.  Panaetius of Rhodes came; Diophanes, who became the tutor for Tiberius Gracchus and Blossius of Cumae arrived.  Greek education from then on had a huge impact of Roman education.

Some stories of these teachers are strange and beg for the pen of a clever mystery writer.  There was Antonius Gnipho who as a baby was exposed in Gaul, rescued, raised by foster parents, educated, learned both Latin and Greek and became Caesar’s teacher.  He, Antonius, was interested in the correct form of words.  Cicero heard him on several occasions.  There was Tyrannio who became tutor of Cicero’s son, arranged his library after it was plundered by Clodius’ thugs.  He, Tyrannio, had been acquired by Lucullus at Amisus (modern Turkey).  

There is strong evidence that women were often highly educated.

Primary School and paedagogues

Livy says that when Camillus entered Tusculum in 381 BC, that the schools were alive with the voices of children.  Dionysius, the historian, says that in Rome at the time of Verginia (the one claimed as a slave by Claudius) there were schools in the forum.  Plutarch says that teaching was looked upon as a service.  But Spurius Carvillius was the first to charge for teaching.  Plautus in the Mercator has a character talk in terms of school experiences.

In a Roman house freeborn children and verna (home born slaves) gathered together for class.  These often became close.  The word verna may be Etruscan. The story of Tarquin the Elder and his wife Tanaquil raised Servius Tullius, a house born slave, as one of their own.  Writing tablets have been found in Tuscan territory from 6th century BC.

Verna were probably assigned to children to carry books, etc (capsarius), when the children had their own children, this verna was often put in charge of their kids when the parents were out.  He was the custos (guardian).  This word became interchangeable with paedagogus.  This slave may well have sat with the child in the classroom and learned.  Remmius Palaemon began as a custos, learned so well that he became a well known teacher.

Atticus, Crassus, Cato and others educated slaves.  These, when sold, were called litterator.  This is the word for primary school teacher.  Many of these gained their freedom and set up their own schools.  But as many were Greek, these would have introduced aspects of Greek education into their Latin lessons.

A Greek paedagogus was responsible for the safety and good behavior of a child and some may have taught the child.  In Plautus’ time probably Romans were aware of paedagogus because Q. Fabius Maximus was called Hannibal’s Paedagogus.  The term was apparently already familiar.  Many inscriptions and records show the courage and loyalty of a paedagogus.  Some of the stories are quite impressive and heart rendering.

The paedagogus and nutrix helped children sometimes from the time of birth until they went to school.  They were expected to act in place of parents- to teach their charges, to rise before an adult, show deference and courtesy.  Behavior was enforced by punishment or explanation.  The less educated paedagogus used force.  The system provided for tight control of a child.  When the custos period was over, the kid sometimes sowed wild oats.

The paedagogus, a Greek, often taught Greek to the children.  When set free, the paedagogus often became a teacher.  Thus the family and/or the custos laid the foundation for education.

Schools of Grammar and Literature

Greeks were surprised to learn that the Romans opted not to have an official state established system funded by the government or private benefactors.

Those who rose above the level of the status of a paedagogus were called grammatici.  In Greece the one who taught reading/writing was called grammatistes- from grammata which means letter of the alphabet.

As time passed the grammaticus was elevated to someone knowledgeable of letters/literature. The stories of grammatici are varied and often remarkable.  There was Pompeius Lenaeus, kidnapped, became a slave, rescued, numerous adventures, educated, purchased his freedom, became a member of Pompeius’ staff, went on all of his expeditions, examined the library of Mithridates, found medical treatises, translated these, became an expert in pharmacology, his works were used by Pliny the Elder.  He was loyal to Pompeius’ family, attacked Sallust for remarks he made about Pompeius.  He lived on the Carinae in Rome.  From there he taught the rest of his life.

The Rhetoric School and their critics

According to Quintilian, orators had in the early days what he called natural eloquence.  This meant that no exercises were involved nor the study of textbooks.  The word orator originally meant spokesman.

But by 169 BC there was probably in existence rhetoric instructors.  Evidence for this increases when in 161 BC concern was expressed by some Romans about teaching it for rhetoricians and philosophers were expelled.  There is more to this than a reaction against Greeks for Greeks had been teaching grammar and literature for some time.  It was the effect of the teaching- Cato remarked that after hearing Carneades he felt that there was no way to tell truth from falsehood.  But people were enthralled with it and the demand increased.

The power of rhetoric was very apparent in criminal trials.  Criminal trials tended to bring more notice.  Although Scipio did not go this route.  Since the Romans did not want a state prosecutor, the field was wide open.

Hermagoras and other Greeks organized rhetoric into parts: the invention of material, arrangement, style, memory, delivery.  Cicero felt that Hermagoras was weak in style.

There were many schools and many teachers.  By 94 BC Plotius Gallus opened his school.  It was closed by the Censors (Crassus and Domitius Ahenobarbus)  for academic reasons.  They felt that it was not productive for students.  Why?  Because he taught his students how to be loud, how to bully an opponent.  It avoided that quality which these Romans felt of value- analysis of subject matter, solid backing in meaningful phrases and language.  People like Plotius hung on but they never had the stamp of approval from the greats.

Cicero and the Ideal of Oratorical Education

Cicero distinguished between language which was heavily influenced by the home and literature which would show up in the way people spoke and between Latin literature which could take someone only so far and Greek literature which could make all the difference.

The Hellenistic system included literature, poetry, music, arithmetic, astronomy, music theory.  Cicero studied all of these.  Diodotus the Stoic, who was blind, taught his students geometry using verbal instructions.  Cicero at 22 studied under him.

There was interest among Romans in geometry and astronomy but evidently many other students were interested in these and other subjects.  Sextus Pompeius devoted himself to geometry, Sulpicius Gallus to astronomy, Pompeius’ wife was excellent at geometry.  There were in fact schools of geometry in Italy.

Cicero felt that mathematics was valuable for training the mind for memory and difficult material.  But philosophy gave what one had to say weight and it allowed discussion of what was right and wrong.  Dialectic he found useful as it allowed one to make distinctions, define, compare and contrast thoughts in order to find the truth.  The study of Law was essential to know how it fit into history. And philosophy was essential to understand human issues which lay behind the Law.  Cicero’s view of education went well beyond normal school years.

The Roman Student Abroad

Cicero’s son was educated in Greece as were many others.  This was very common during the Republic.  Athens and other Greek cities were destinations for many a young Roman.

Education in a decadent society

Family quality dropped except in areas away from Rome.  Concubinage was common.  Divorce became more common.  Young men played around.  (But inscriptions help to balance the picture.  There was much activity in the Campus Martius where military style training was carried out.  Augustus labored to encourage rigorous activity.)  But idle and undisciplined youth were partially the result of parents.  Children were spoiled, not expected to do chores, were carried about in a litter, coddled.  Parents often picked low quality nurses or paedagogus for their children.  Correct language, courtesy were not demanded.

The commonest form of higher education was rhetoric school.  Parental influence came to put pressure on these schools.  Parents wanted a quick route to oratory.  Parents objected to the series of steps in education.  They wanted short cuts.  Thus grammatici began to cut back on literature and instead work on declamation (formal speaking) to make sure that students were ready to declaim when they entered rhetoric school.  At the same time there was a cutting back on general education such as arithmetic, geometry, music theory, astronomy.  Many people and teachers began to think that these had no relevance to the goal at hand- rhetoric.

It became popular to open up declamation sessions to the public.  Thus parents would hear a quality speaker, or one that they thought was so, and want their children to do that.  So students gave speeches at rhetoric school instead of shadowing  an experienced teacher on the job.  The student wished to focus on declamation and also had certain themes in mind.  Teachers, who feared loss of students, capitulated.  Some teachers in the hopes of keeping their students in class spent time talking about those activities which students selected.

Days were set aside for declamation.   Boys would stand and cheer their fellows and expect the same when it was their turn.   If a teacher was not as enthusiastic  about a performance as the students, the students often became irritated.  Parents tended to notice only how many times their child spoke instead of how well they spoke.  Students thus became lazy and did not know what quality was.  Many of these came from homes where discipline was weak.

Poor behavior bred more poor behavior.  As schools gained poor reputations, this made it difficult for good school to receive confidence of parents.  Then, too, not the highest quality person always went into teaching, as a result of loss of prestige of teaching.

Consequently many parents wanted tutors in their homes.  Of course, only wealthy families could do this.  Quintilian saw problems with home tutoring:

inefficient- for time had to be set aside for the child to study

not a good idea for a student to become accustomed to a sheltered life, since they were interested in a public career.

school friendships were important for enjoyment and the future

at school a student could learn from other’s mistakes and see that poor work, laziness were censured

competition

difficult for tutors without an audience to show a student what to do.

Stories of Pliny the Younger helping friends find quality teachers for their children are touching.  Pliny pointed out that a teacher he found was eloquent but Pliny rated his character even higher.  As Pliny wrote:

…he (the child) will learn nothing that he would better not have known….

And respect for family history and the honor deserved by parents.

The philosophers, particularly the Stoics did much to counter evil.  They did this with a display of discipline, principles, frugal life style and courage.

The Problem of Accommodation

Rome was much different from Greece with its state/private supported schools.  Most children in Rome were taught to read and write at home.  Those who were not were poor.  Teachers of these made little, thus their classes were in open settings at street corners or around the forum or portici, exhedra, etc. (There are two exhedra tombs at Pompeii- perhaps these were used as a location for classes.)  Some teachers taught out of their home.

Schools met in taberna, tabernacula (tented spot), open areas, pergula- in other words in any place which would work.  (The books of Roman architecture seem to suggest that architects took the possibility of school use into their design plans.)

Pergula could be in a garden.  Extensions on the second level of a building overhanging a street in a city were used.  These were called maenianum, a balcony room.  Such for sure existed in Herculaneum and no doubt at Pompeii and other cities.

But this may be the reason that school rooms rarely survived from Roman times.  For second floor structures rarely survive.  But there is literary evidence for these which suggests that many schools had a better setting than is thought.

Equipment: organization: discipline

School began at the crack of dawn.  In the winter the paedagogus used a lamp to guide the way.  The school master sat in a cathedra with a footstool underneath.  He wore a toga.  Near by was a book box, capsa and a ferula, a whip.  The students usually sat on benches.  There were no desks.  Lamps were used in the early morning.  Writing while holding a roll was not easy.  For this reason, the teacher most likely dictated.  Students had a wooden tablet and a stylus.  One end of the stylus was pointed to scratch letters into the wax, the other end was flat, to allow for erasing errors.

Papyrus was used but it was expensive.  The wax tablets actually make more sense for a child.  The writing tool was kept in a theca, a case.  The pen, calamus, if one was used, had a split nib which allowed ink to flow.  With papyrus, erasures were made with a wet sponge.  The ink was made from the juice of a cuttlefish.  Or it was artificial compound.  It was kept in ink pots.  Pliny the Elder tells us that ground wormwood mixed into the ink would prevent the mice from eating the paper.  Parchment exercise books were used but these were expensive.  Besides the wax tablet was faster and since there were no desks, the tablet provided a durable surface for writing.

Geography maps, paintings depicting history and places were accessible through at city.  Of course sculpture was evident throughout a city.  These would depict mythical subjects or history or events from the past.  

The size of a school varied a great deal.  Seneca went to a school where there were 200 children.  Some schools had 3 or even 2.  Some teachers used sub-teachers to help with students.  In some situations there were several teachers instructing various groups at the same time.

Students competed for the top seat in class.  Verrius Flaccus who had class competitions gave a fine book or a rare one to the winner.  There were no examinations but there were contests.  Boys and girls went to primary school together.  Most students began at the age of seven.  But some, such as Cicero, began at age 4.  There is evidence in Martial that girls also commonly went to grammar school (ages 11- 20).

Both girls and boys studied tragedy and works which contained stories of moral value.  The inculcation of morals was very important to Romans.  

Primary school was in the morning and afternoon..  Grammar school was held in the afternoon or beginning in the early morning for 6 hours.  Some teachers were grammatici and also rhetorici.  These would adjust their schedule accordingly.

The Romans had an eight day week and then nundinae (market day).  There were three holidays:  Saturnalia from December 17- 23, Quinquatrus from 19-23 March.  Summer went from sometime in June to October 15.

There was no homework.  There were passages to memorize.  Discipline problems increased as wealth increased and parents felt that their children’s behavior was the concern of someone else.  There are remarks of bored looks, questions to make themselves look smart and the impression that they knew more.  There are also humorous drawings in Pompeii which make remarks about a plodding teacher.  Probably deserved.

The hazards of a fee paying system: municipal and state appointments.

Teachers were paid after teaching duties were finished.  Often on a monthly basis.  Or even a yearly basis.  So sometimes parents bailed payment for various reasons.  Teachers were hesitant to remove the student because class numbers reflected the appearance of success.  

There were festivals during which it was customary to take gifts to teachers.  There was the Quinquatrus (for Minerva) .  It was celebrated five days after the Ides of March.  It was a birthday for her temple.  The school room was decorated with flowers, there was a procession to the temple.  Minerva was the patroness of teachers.  Students were enrolled on this day.  Schools had the tradition of beginning in March.  Also the year contract was paid on this day.  In a country setting, students gave a teacher nefrenditium (means non chewing, such as a pig).  The gift could be money.  There was also the holiday of Saturnalia and New Years Day.

The ludi magister was the primary teacher and was the lowest paid.  Grammatici could earn money via publication.

Some teachers who could no longer teach spent their last years in utter poverty. Some grammatici through careful business practice amassed wealth.  

Rhetoric teachers were much in demand and made more money.  This position also had the possibility of leading to important government positions.  But even these often taught students for free whose parents simply could not pay.

Some towns set up public funds and private subsidies for rhetorici and philosophers.  Massilia did this.  It sponsored doctors, too.  Gaul in general became known for quality education.  There the philosopher and rhetoricus were often elected to high office. These, by the time of Vespasian, were exempt from financial obligations and from putting up troops.

Primary Education:  reading, writing and reckoning

There is an interesting quote from this section which applies now as it did then:

“The circumstances under which Roman children learned to read and write, and the extent of the linguistic knowledge which they acquired at an early age varied considerably according to their family background.”

There was in primary education a progression from letters to syllables to words to sentences to passages.

Any one passing a primary school would hear a chorus of chant of children repeating the teacher.  They sang addition problems, recited the Twelve Tables (early law code of Rome) and sang the alphabet.

In fact the alphabet is in a rhythmical pattern by design to facilitate learning it.  This was also combined with tactile exercises.  The teacher would write a letter on the child’s tablet, say the letter, have the child say the letter and have the child write it by following the outline of the letter scratched into the wax.  After a while the teacher would have students identify the letters in a word.  Student were also given sets of letters in wood.  They could then feel and handle each individual letter.  These letters could be jumbled and students asked to identify a letter or put these in order or even reverse order.  Sometimes pastries were provided in the shape of letters and upon correct identification, the students could feast.

Students also worked in competitive groups.  Romans knew the benefits of this.

Teachers were not in agreement whether the sounds  should come first or visual identification. Teachers would take a student’s tablet and inscribe a letter faintly written and then ask the student to make the letter more bold.  A board with letters incised crisply would be handed to the student.  The student would feel these, take a stylus to move it through the shape.  Either way the goal was to get the student to be able to write the letter on their own.  Teachers were known to take the child’s hand while the child held the pen/stylus and show the correct motion.  They wrote horizontally and vertically in columns.  Also as time progressed, students would learn to combine letters.  The capitals were taught first (sometimes called the lapidary letters).  Cato the Elder, for example, wrote out in large capital letters in his own hand a history for his son.

Then syllables were attacked.  Each consonant was pared with each vowel and then increasing length of syllables presented.  Such lists survive.  There is one list which survives where a lad/lass forgot a sequence, noticed the error and completed the set correctly.  Then students were shown real words, one syllable words.  But also words with odd combination of letters which were difficult to pronounce.

Teachers would string words together in patterns which, as a sentence, made no sense but these exercises were designed to give practice with difficult sounds.

Children wrote on tables, potsherds (broken pieces of pottery), papyrus scraps.

At early stages multisyllabic words would be written with syllables separated:  Scip: i : o.  The names of Gods, Goddesses, mythical people, famous people were practiced.  (This shows good sense for these names would occur on inscriptions and common documents which would allow a student to reflect some progress at an early stage.)

It is important to keep in mind that students were learning Latin AND Greek at the same time.  So on a tablet on one side would be a Latin word and on the other the Greek equivalent.  Words of the parts of the body, animals, divinities, warfare, wealth, navigation and plants were commonly practiced.

Then sentences in actual texts with no word division were practiced.  At an early stage the teacher wrote out sentences with a space between syllables and marks between words.

There is a sarcophagus which survives showing a young fellow reciting his lesson with his teacher standing behind him and looking over the should of the student.

Once sentences were reached it is very clear that sentences with moral value were essential.  These sentences were written at the top of each student’s tablet.  Students would then copy these and pronounce the sentence.  (Teacher notes survive such as- “work hard”.)  Here are examples:

Ill-wishes raise up disrepute, well wishers, fame.  

A friend at need is a friend indeed. 

How futile knowledge is without good sense.  

Cato was often used as was Terence.

As skills progressed students could copy a sentence from dictation.  (My sixth grade teacher, Mrs. Salisbury did this- it was very difficult for she graded punctuation, spelling and accuracy.  But what an awesome exercise and preparation for note taking, too.)

Now students would begin to combine writing with recitation and memorization.  The teacher would dictate a sentence, the student would write it down, was given time to memorize, then recite and explain.  There was also dictation to the whole class, students copy, practice, memorize and recite.

In the early days only the great authors were used but as time passed there seemed to be a drive for good ole relevance and current authors were used, many of which were substandard.

These exercises were used to judge the aptitude of a student.  Increasingly, as part of this, grammar was introduced.  It was important for good grammar at home, but the teacher needed to model quality pronunciation and grammar, also.

It is important to remember in primary school that in the same class were students at and of different levels and ability.  This surely kept the teacher hopping.  Here is a typical day:  some write and read while the teacher models.  Then each recites the passage to the teacher.  Then each student is given a vocabulary list.  This is studied and recited to the teacher.  While these students are doing these things, some test others on their ability to copy and recite.  There were often arguments who was allowed to go first.  During this the teacher works with beginners.  The teacher was often assisted in this by older students.  The teacher at another time may dictate to students, these drill, recite to the teacher.  Soon lunch arrives and off they go.

Also while doing all of this teacher found time to teach numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.  Students learned to do this with an abacus, pebbles via games and a load of effort.   But there was another one which was quick, needed  no paper- fingers.

Romans used the duodecimal system: the as, a coin, was divided into 12 unciae, so was the pound and the foot.  They practiced oral addition such as 5/12-t/12 = 1/3 (quincuni-uncia=triene)  Playing with their coins would have helped with this.

But the Romans also used the decimal system to calculate interest.  When the decimal system had to phase with the duodecimal system, things could get complicated.  The abacus was often used.  Some people who showed interest and ability received special training in it.  (Some of these fellows show up on relief carvings.) The abacus could deal with numbers up to 9,999,999.  As numbers progressed, the calculator would record the numbers.  The abacus fit into the palm of the hand.  Pebbles (calculi) were moved about in a groove.  One groove represented the 1’s, another 10’s, 100’s, 1,000’s, 10,000’s, 100,000’s and 1,000,000’s.

Students were also taught numbers via the hand.  This was fascinating.  1 to 10 and10’s on the left,   100’s on the right.  I wager there were races and competition with this in class- no paper, no tablets, just speed.  This system also was used in numerous settings: dock workers, fishermen, sales people, even orators would signal to the audience a number as they said it.

The Grammatical Syllabus I

Part of the syllabus was parts of speech, declensions, conjugations, classification of letters, spelling, verse scansion.  In Latin the sound of saying the letters of the alphabet was the same as the actual letter.  This was not the case in Greek.  Probably the naming of the letters was established by Varro.

In Latin the “e” sound preceded or followed a letter for pronunciation purposes: be ce de el em.

Then there was the study of syllables.  The meter students learned was the hexameter.  Selections were often drawn from Home and Virgil.  The iambic trimeter was often taught, too.  

Remmius Palaemon adopted from the Greeks word classification:  noun, verb, adverb, participle, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, interjection.  The adjective was always associated with a noun, so these were not given a separate category.

Teaching began with noun gender.  How could they know the gender?  In Latin the gender of diminutive of a noun would determine the gender of the noun:  arbuscula was feminine, thus arbor is feminine.  There were a few exceptions.  Diminutives were very common, particularly among the young, I’ll bet, and common speech.

By the end of the Republic there were five declensions.  This was determined by the ablative.  Varro lists all five declensions.  Varro set up the system for conjugations of the regular verbs.

The Grammatical Syllabus II

Correctness in speech and writing was very important to the Romans.  Any language is in constant flux.  Thus what to do with foreign words?  raeda (wagon) is Gallic.  It was an accepted Latin word, yet Catullus preferred ploxenum (wagon box).  This was common in the Po Valley but not elsewhere.  The standard, sort of, was Rome as Athens was for Greece.  BUT so many local varieties existed in Italy that there arose the classifications barbarism and rustic.  It was not easy to distinguish between the two.  Problems arose from parents and paedagogus.  Also the teacher had to show students the license permitted to poets was not correct for everyday speech- exempli gratia- Italia with a leading short “i” is correct Latin, but Virgil and others used Italia with a long leading “i” in poetry.

( In reading this book I now understand why Cicero would translate a passage of Greek and then take the translation and try to recreate the Greek- it seems that this tended to reinforce good grammar and the avoidance of barbarisms and solecisms (grammatical mistakes) both in Greek and in Latin.)

Students were taught to use the test for what was correct in doubtful cases by analogy.  But Stoics argued that language was a natural growth.  Thus to them usage was the best way to judge.

Analogy it seems was by those who wanted order and complete predictability of language.  Whereas the anomalists favored natural usage.  Cicero argued for usage.  His argument was often on the grounds of euphony.

Etymology also used in argument of correctness.  Some of these made sense, some are a tad wild.  Orthography also was employed.  How to distinguish short “i” from long “i”?  The “i” in pueri is long, so some suggested puerei.  The “i” in divus is long so some suggested deivus.

The important observation here is the wide range of perspective, areas used to help figure things out and the persistence.

Study of the Poets I

1st step:  Homer.  The Iliad was used more than the Odyssey.  (I will take a stab and guess that teachers knew that the Odyssey would be read anyway for the incredibly delightful stories.)  Soon they would hit the Aeneid.  Until this work, Ennius’ Annales was heavily used.  Much graffiti at Pompeii have quotes from Virgil.  So epic was important.  Tragedy.  Euripides was most common, then Sophocles and in Latin- Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius.  Comedy- here teachers used more caution.  It was usually held off until the moral character of the young was strong.  In Greek a favorite was Menander.

It was often the case that a professional actor would come to class, recite the lines in order to show students how it was done.  Plautus was also used as was Terence.  Terence even more so as his Latin was of a very high quality.

With lyric poetry teachers were also careful but Pindar and Sappho were commonly used.  In Latin Horace, Corinna and Catullus selectively were used.  BUT those interested in lyric poetry would have done more with Catullus.  Love poetry was with the older ones.  And of course once poetry was studied, there was nothing to stop students from reading on their own.

Classroom set up only allowed for a limited number of authors, but teachers recited, students studied, read, studied, memorized.

The grammaticus worked mostly with poets.  Why?  Passages in tragic poets could prove most useful for an advocate.  Thus prose authors were found in rhetoric school.  But authors hit by grammatici were Cicero and Livy.  A teacher would select a passage, present background information with history and commentary.

Students faced the difficulty in reading texts partly due to lack of punctuation.  So teachers often punctuated a passage before handing it over to students.  A very important aspect was expression, a demonstration was essential, appropriateness was also important.

Passages from tragic poets which displayed power were selected.  Same thing with comedy- it was also valuable in that the manner of speech in comedy was more like everyday speech.

Voice modulation, when to be animated, loud, soft, calm, energetic, facial expressions were also pursued.  

As class progressed the teacher would practice praelectio- he would read the passage as it should be read as a model for the students.

Study of the Poets II

Reading and exposition overlapped but a teacher might have a student read, then have him/her explain what a passage means or ask the student to identify cases, tenses, scan, identify the meter.

A student might ask a teacher to explain a word in order to understand the passage.  This and the like lead to teachers creating commentaries.

Trope is a different way of expressing something- one type of trope was Metaphor.  There are four types:

animate to animate: shepherd of the hosts

inanimate to inanimate: reins to the fleet

animate to inanimate: shameless stone

inanimate to animate: bulwark of the Achaeans

Another trope: Catachresis- misuse of a term:  shoulder of a mountain

Metonymy- one name for something else:  using Ceres to represent grain

Antonomasia- refer to someone using patronymic

Synecdoche- part for a whole

Onomatopoeia

Periphrasis- the time when first sleep comes to weary mortals ( in place of simply saying evening or night), offspring of a bristling boar= pig.

Hyperbaton- odd word order

Anastrophe- reversing a prep phrase

Hyperbole- as fast as the winds

Allegory- this could impact a whole passage - Horace’s “ship of state”

Enigma

Irony

Sarcasms

Simile

These and more give the impression of a concerted effort to understand the fine points of literature and aid in the enjoyment thereof.

Another side of all this was the interpretation of texts as moral lessons.  Philosophers pushed this aspect, grammatici the above.

Another aspect- “the study of structure, propriety of characterization, striking thoughts, expansion and conciseness.”

All of these would apply to proper steps in a speech and appropriate language.

Arrangement and expressiveness-

arrangement (dispositio) - the way a poem is put together- e.g. in medias res.  An arrangement can help to set up a scene and make it more powerful

propriety- a teacher would discuss what was appropriate or not for a character to say.  This also covered the proper choice of words in the right setting by the right people.  This instilled in a student the need for careful choice of words, quality sounds for the subject at hand, etc.  Even archaic words at the right spot was wise.  Of course this is why old words sometimes were covered from the primary level on.

Reader, remember the maxims which the young copied, memorized and recited?  These maxims, the grammatici would point out for discussion when they came up in text.

Brevity would be used or not according to circumstances.

Progress into rhetoric

Greek grammar kept separate from rhetoric but in Latin there was much pressure from students/parents to get ahead.  Thus grammatici took on more and more prose/composition responsibility.  This extended the time a student spent with the grammaticus- to their financial advantage.  Plus rhetorici saw potential for fame and money in suasoriae/controversiae and were willing to let grammatici to take up what rhetorici no longer did.

Quintilian proposed a compromise- that grammatici handle the early stages of composition and leave the rest to the rhetorici.  This is closer to the system which the Greeks used.

The easiest exercise: Students would be assigned a saying or maxim or fable or mythological narrative.  The student would be expected to expand it, explain it in a short essay.  Some times the exercise required taking both sides of a view of a maxim, for example.  Further steps developed and required even more difficult treatment of a saying or maxim to come closer to a practical oratorical activity.  With Speech in Character a student would take a part of some mythical character who faced a difficult decision.  This would require a psychological perspective on the part of the student.

Next came Description and last Discussion of a Law.  These were written exercises but also orally presented.  The main thrust was toward being an orator but the exercises were clearly designed to develop poetic and other literary skills.

(This system was meant to develop and appreciation for literature and an ability to discuss it.)

Classical authors provided background reading.  For example a fable would be selected.  Students would relate the simple outline of the story and then proceed to elaborate parts to reflect the nature of the various animals in the story.  Many fables did not contain the morals at the end or beginning of the poem as they do now.  It is thought that some of these perhaps were added by students as part of an assignment.  Student may also be assigned to take a fable and relate it to an historical incident.  Or the reverse.  So morals were discussed, practice in composition and explanation at the same time.

Another exercise- take a saying and express it in all cases:

Isocrates said

The remarks of Isocrates

Isocrates, you once said…

This was done in the plurals, also.  Why?  The primary levels did not teach complex manipulation of language, thus it was needed at this level.

The idea was to develop creativity in the context of quality writers, to be expressive in numerous ways, to make it interesting and informative.  This kind of exercise leads to Narrative- the art of story telling.

Students might be assigned a story and be told to begin in the middle and then find a way to pick up the beginning or even work backwards.  Or to relate the story in such a way which justifies the conclusion.  This was done in the Odyssey, also used by Herodotus and in the Aeneid, etc.  Another twist may be used:  Refutation or Confirmation of an event such as was Romulus cared for by the she-wolf?

Commonplace is the technique of speaking on a subject in general terms. e.g. a Tyrant who has been slain.  A Commonplace would be a presentation on the evil of the absence of free thought.

There was a variation of this:  Encomium, Denunciation.  These Commonplaces, Encomium and Denunciation see everything in black or white.  But sometimes a more balanced approach was needed, thus Comparison was used.

Next step- Prosopopeoia, a speech in character.  So a student needed to think- what kind of speech would so and so have made to so and so.  This was much like a suasoriae and was a late exercise.

Description is another for later in schooling.  It required imagination and observation and restraint not to go too far.

Thesis- should a man get married? Should Cato get married?

The last and most difficult- Praise or Denunciation of a Law.  This required a huge range of skills developed for all previous years of learning and also what was learned on one’s own.  So what was there to correct?  A teacher had to judge a student’s ability and make corrections but not to crush creativity.

Declamation on historical themes

First step- Deliberation- should Cicero beg Antony for his life?  With this they must develop arguments which are suitable to the topic.  There are two ways to look at this- utile or honestum.  In other words should Cicero seek his own advantage or select what was the moral thing to do?  These exercises required thought on a wide range of subjects.  Whatever the subject it offered opportunity for description of people, places, ideas, duty, history, etc.

Sententiae- these could be very handy for a particular event.  These were pithy, concise and clever- e.g. The sign of a great spirit is moderation in success.

To compose a suasoriae the speaker must enter the shoes of an advisor and would have to adopt what he said to the character selected.  So to do this one would have to learn a great deal about the person being advised.

(Based on the historical periods used and the authors selected, it is no wonder that aspects of Republicanism survived, flourished and served as a thorn in the side of emperors.)

Learning the art of the Advocate

It is important to understand that Cicero, for example, learned much from rhetorici but he learned that in practice the rules often had to be ignored.  But this was not the case with declamation after the fall of the Republic.

Putting it all together:

Exordium- the introduction to a speech.  It must do three things: 1. make the audience well disposed (benevolum), 2. interested (attentum), 3. informed (docilem).

benevolum- acquired by advocate making careful assessment of the judges, audience, prosecutor.  He had to determine if the judges on the jury were tired, bored or deeply affected by words of his opponent.

Narratio- facts of the case.  The facts may need to be altered if there was more than one defending attorney.  It would make no sense for each attorney to state the facts of the case.  In this section the advocate would ignore the weak points, emphasize the strong points and even fabricate if necessary.  Or state an event in such a way that what the prosecutor alleged made no sense.

Argumenta- must be methodical but have impressive spontaneity.   Some of this required instruction from someone who actually handled cases and for observation of those in action.  The development of these could be very complex:  2 men happened to share a room in an inn.  One of the men was carrying a great deal of money.  The innkeeper takes a sword (during the night) from one and uses it to kill the other.  The inn keeper takes the money.  The other man not knowing what had happened to the other leaves.  The innkeeper then has the man who left accused of murder.

Definitio- a client admitted a deed but says that he should not be punished.  The case revolves around the definition of the crime. i.e. What is madness?  Or such as causa mortis- how far should it be applied? comparatio, shifting the blame, the choices are almost endless.  What is venenum?  Is it poison in the common sense or could a love potion be classified as such?

Peroratio-  a swift review of the case with a strong appeal.  The more important the case, the more so with use of plea for pity (miseratio).

The client may admit the act but claimed that the action was justified.  One might think of Cicero’s defense of Milo.  In fact the speeches most often used as examples of perfection and analysis, sometimes word for word, were those of Cicero.

Declamation as a preparation for the law courts

Quintilian saw the importance of having mock cases as true to life as possible.  But there was increasing interest in bizarre cases involving curses and mystical practices.  Declamation had a tendency to be unreal and too much ensconced in an ivory tower.  This is true but by the same token the variety of exercises, the variety of situations called forth cleverness and inventiveness.  There is also the problem of the knowledge of the law.  Some programs presented way too little.  In spite of deficiencies there were fine results of the schools, such as Pliny the Younger.

I can not overemphasize the importance of this book.