745. Cicero Imperator: Studies in Cicero's correspondence 51-47 BC by Magnus Wistband

745.  Cicero Imperator:  Studies in Cicero’s correspondence 51-47 BC by Magnus Wistrand.  This is the finest work yet on Cicero’s capacity for intricate thought and planning.  If only scholars would take the time to write with the clarity and care that this man does, difficult concepts would be easier to understand and difficult thought would reach a wider audience.

In 52 BC the Lex Pompeia de Provinciis required a five year gap between the Consulship and a position in a province.  Thus those who had not served were required to step up.  In February of 51 BC Cicero became Proconsul and was assigned to Cilicia.   His imperium was granted by a vote of the people. His activities in the east won him the right to a triumph.  When it came time to report these activities to friends (in order to seek official recognition), Cicero adapted what he wrote to correspond with the person addressed.  So when he wrote to Cato to ask his support for a supplicatio (an official celebration which often led to the celebration of a triumph) Cicero was careful not to lay the aspect of amicitia upon Cato but instead appealed to him as a philosopher.  But at this time the rudiments of the advantage of a triumph began to appeal to Cicero.  He felt that it would add to his dignitas and help make up for the disaster of his exile.

Cilicia

In contrast to the letter to Cato, those letters to C. Marcellus, L. Paullus, the consuls, Cicero is more open about his desire for a triumph.  He appeals to their amicitia (political friendship), beneficia (distinctions) and officia (obligations). He does not tell Atticus until later, as he knew how Atticus felt about such things.

At this point his desire for a triumph reflects his desire to enhance his position.  Since Caelius had suggested the advantage of a triumph in a letter before Cicero was saluted Imperator by his troops, to Caelius Cicero is very open about it.  

Cato replied to Cicero’s letter.  He informs Cicero that the Senate passed the decree granting a supplicatio.  But clearly in his letter he did not vote for it.  And he reminded Cicero that a supplicatio does not automatically mean a triumph.  Cato did not like triumphs.  He felt that the granting of these encouraged conquest.  And to that Cato was opposed.  He even helped to pass a law which made it more difficult to be granted one.  Thus he opposed the supplicatio.  He had opposed the supplicatio granted to Caesar, Postumius and Lentulus Spinther.  There is another reason Cato opposed this supplicatio, he did not feel that Cicero deserved it; he had not done enough.  Cicero in his letter to Cato suggested that supplicatio/triumphs had been rather freely given, so why stop this one, it is just something done.  But the evidence suggests that Cicero was stretching things a tad.  Although there was recent evidence to support Cicero’s contention.  

Cato’s replies are based on stoic principles and are genuine and honest.  Cicero probably hoped that by his letter to Cato he would at least not actively oppose it.  He was successful.  These men knew each other and respected each other.  There is no hint that Cicero felt the least irritation.  Cicero did change his mind later when he heard that Cato had voted for a supplicatio for Bibulus’ activities in Syria.  Caesar used the opportunity to egg Cicero on, as he hated Cato.  But apparently Bibulus ended the Parthian threat in that area (after the disaster of Crassus).  This was of great relief in Rome.  Hence there was a 20 day supplicatio.  There are other matters at play here.  This celebration for Bibulus may have been a chance to even the score with Caesar who also had been granted 20 days and remember too that Bibulus was the colleague of Caesar in 59 BC.  Caesar made living dangerous for Bibulus that year.  

The Senate’s decision to grant the supplicatio for Cicero displays how complicated it was maneuvering something through the Senate.  Caelius and others worked hard to get it and there were some who were convinced not to oppose and not all agreed for the same reasons.  

As the crisis of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey approached Cicero contemplated using the request for a triumph as a means to delay making a response to Caesar and Pompey, both of whom sought Cicero’s support in the coming conflict.  The excuse he gave is that he did not want to offend anyone which may jeopardize his triumph.  So now he saw the triumph as a means to avoid being asked his opinion.  Soon after he questioned if he should pursue this line, when the political situation changed. His concern was to maintain a position which would allow him the freedom of movement.  He debated  value of seeking triumph but the scenario indicated that Cicero was caught off guard.  He did not expect the Civil War to actually happen.

Now his situation changed.  The war began.  By a decree of the Senate, he and other officers were ordered to defend the state. He hoped to maintain his place as an independent in order to position himself as a peace negotiator.  But now he was ordered to defend the state.  His imperium was a distraction and he did not want to alienate either side.  This of course he must not do, if he hoped to present himself as a suitable negotiator.  Yet he was told to recruit soldiers.  He could no longer lay down his imperium which he said he would do, if it proved to be a hinderance.  If he were to lay down his imperium, this would imply that he did not support the Senate. This would destroy his reputation and this would make it impossible to be peacemaker.  

So at this point keeping his imperium had nothing to do with a desire for a triumph. So he did not follow orders to levy troops.  Instead he maneuvered for peace.  He remained passive to keep alive the possibility of peace negotiations.  But the peace negotiation failed.  Cicero’s negotiations for taking this position are very complicated.

Cicero then returns to Formiae.  Why?  It was a bad time to set sail to join up with Pompey, yet he still saw a chance for peace.  But he also had to worry that if Caesar and Pompey came to terms behind his back, he would be in danger.  Pompey asks Cicero to come to Luceria, to join him there.  Cicero makes a weak attempt.  Still hoping for peace.  Later when Pompey had moved his forces to Brundisium, he again asked Cicero to join him there.  

At this Cicero writes a very diplomatic letter to Pompey.  It contains just about all the parts one would expect in a speech.  It is a tactful letter designed to maintain  loyal perception and yet make clear that he was not going to Brundisium.   In the letter there is polite criticism of Pompey’s decisions.  With this Cicero hoped to separate himself from Pompey’s policy.

At this point a letter to Atticus indicates that Cicero abandoned his ideal of peacemaker and instead pursued practical politics.  In other words he adapted to the situation.  Now he wants to leave Italy because he knows that he has been criticized by those with Pompey.  Now he delays because he must wait for decent sailing season weather.  He gave every indication that he wanted to work toward a triumph, as this will allow him not to go to Rome and attend Caesar’s Senate.

Cicero writes to Caesar a letter asking to be allowed to remain neutral.  The letter is diplomacy at its highest.  This was designed to let him remain peacemaker for two reasons:  He wished to stay away from Caesar’s Senate (to avoid angering Republicans) and he wished to pursue peace.  To do so he must not be seen to lean toward either side.  

Cicero wanted to avoid meeting with Caesar but this was impossible. So when Caesar paid a visit to Cicero, things did not go well.  It was clear now that Cicero could no longer wait and see how things would develop.  But Caesar now published the letter which he received from Cicero in which there were flattering comments of Caesar made by Cicero in order to get Caesar to grant his neutrality.  Caesar perhaps published the letter in order to embarrass Cicero, cause Republicans to be angry with him and thus drive Cicero into Caesar’s camp.  So of course at this point Caesar is happy with Cicero.

Later Quintus jr. moves to Caesar’s side and fills Caesar with much bitterness toward Cicero.  Caesar begins to distrust Cicero.  But now Cicero can not leave Italy because of the weather.  Soon Cicero receives letters from Caelius, Caesar and Antonius with veiled threats toward himself and his family, if he should join Pompey.  Tullia was very upset for her father when she read these letters.  But Caesar was successful in that Cicero did not leave Italy.  Yet.  Soon Caesar gave orders that no one was to leave Italy.  

So from January to March Cicero thought peace was possible, thus he struggled to remain neutral, then he was forced to wait and see how things would develop, then Caesar’s hostility increased, then there was the order that no on leave Italy.  All the while the lever used for this was his imperium.  At this point Cicero decides to escape.  All the while he still has the lictors (who represent his imperium) which provide excuse not to attend a meeting of the Senate.

Magnus Wistrand emphasizes that Cicero was not motivated by a desire for a triumph because after the decree of the Senate (at the beginning of the Civil War), Cicero’s imperium status changed.  Thus at that point he could not lay down the imperium for political reasons- for to do so would betray the Republic.  Very few letters for part of 48 and 47 BC survive.  But Cicero, after Pharsalus, left Greece and returned to Italy, thinking that the war would soon end.  Cicero arrived at Brundisium.  Atticus advised that he move closer to Rome and move at night so that the lictors would not attract attention.  Apparently Cicero received permission from Caesar to move closer to Rome as a private person.   This means that he could go anywhere he wished, if he lay down his imperium.  The people and the Senate had bestowed this imperium and Proconsular status.  Before Greece Cicero for various reasons had to keep the imperium but after the defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus, Cicero was free to do as he wished.  And so this means that he decided to keep the imperium for a particular reason.  

What was that reason? In speeches and letters it is very clear that Cicero was very sensitive to proper Republican procedure and protocol.  Cicero was determined that his Proconular powers would receive recognition from Caesar as legally and properly bestowed by the people and the Senate (not by Caesar’s grace).  There is probably another reason that Caesar did not want him to go to Rome.  There was unrest there and riots (things were not going well.).  The person in charge at Rome was Antonius, he had 6 lictors as a symbol of his power, but Cicero with the imperium of a Proconsul had 12.  Caesar did not feel it a good idea that a Proconsul with imperium, granted by the Senate and the people, appear in Rome when riots were in progress.  It makes much more sense that Cicero navigated a path to protect the integrity of the Republic than that he simply wanted a triumph. 

Caesar met Cicero August 25, 47 BC on his way from Tarentum.  Cicero sometime in this period received a letter from Caesar recognizing Cicero as Proconsul with imperium and lictors as a grant from the people (which is what Cicero had so carefully sought via his complex diplomacy).  Caesar granted a triumph to Cicero.  Why?  He hoped to bind Cicero by obligation to himself- i.e. Cicero would owe him one.  This is the same reason that Cicero rejected the offer and thus declared his own independence.  So to Caesar’s dismay, Cicero rejected an offer which would give himself (Cicero) great prestige but bestowed by a man (Caesar) whom Cicero saw holding illegitimate power.