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| The Choice of Hercules by Paolo de' Matteis |
How else can virtues be understood? Now we will discuss utile (usefulness, practical, advantageous, expedient) Utile unfortunately has been severed from moral goodness to the point that something maybe morally good but not expedient. Thus some take cunning to be a form of wisdom. People must learn that they can get what they want by honorable means, not by craft and deception.
Two things are necessary for protecting life 1) inanimate (gold, food), 2) animate (instincts, desire). Of animate some are rational (humans and some not (animals). Human effort provides human needs. Cicero gives a list of human effort- aqueducts, harbors, etc. Humans naturally associated with each other. From this developed cities, laws, customs, equal application of the law and manner of living. Then followed mildness of mind, reverence and it has brought about a life more fortified. And yet the greatest disasters for humans have been caused by humans.
This is where the pursuit of virtue can bring humans together and to unite humans for a common purpose. The skills of hard work brings about things of use from objects and anima;s but the pursuit of wisdom and virtue advance human interests as humans. These virtues are:
wisdom (pursuit of truth)
temperance (restraint)
justice ( fair dealing in the exchange of goods and services and punishment for those who attack these)
There are six reasons why people help people:
1 kindness
2. out of respect
3. Because a person is successful
4. fear
5. Hope for some favor in return
6. Hope of reward.
People submit to another's power
1. good will
2. gratitude
3. due to level of dignity
4. fear
5. hope of largess
6. Bribe.
This is the best road to influence: to be held in the highest esteem. Fear is poor protection. Those who use force and hatred to rule eventually meet retribution by the general populace.
The Senate was once the safe harbor of Kings, peoples and nations when the empire was based on service. But matters fall apart when someone like Sulla holds an auction of others' property as "his loot".
The first necessity is to have friends who care about us. Distinction, renown, goodwill help to develop these friendships.
First his discusses gloria (glory, fame, pride). This depends on the esteem of the multitude. To gain glory requires
1.the admiration and goodwill of people. What are these foundations of goodwill? Acts of kindness. One must do something nice even though nothing is expected. A reputation for generosity, kindness, justice, trust.
2. Trust or confidence is fides- it is possessed if a person is thought good, can handle situations as they arise, is just and wise. Justice is the more important in gaining confidence.
3. Admiration is acquired by the display of hard work, effort, caring, a strong spirit, energy, talent. These are acquired by avoiding the faults which others have difficulty avoiding. We admire those who resist allurements.
What ties all these together?
Justice
Every walk of life requires human cooperation. It is easy if one is a good person. The best defense is to be well thought of. Even robbers live by a strict code.
Kings come about because common people were oppressed by the powerful. One was picked for preeminence in virtue. The impetus for establishing published laws was the same as that for a kings- equality before the law. Justice should be cultivated for its own sake and for the honor and fame which come with it.
Socrates said that the short cut to gloria is to be the kind of person one wishes to be thought. Everything fake quickly fall like little petals of a flower.
How to have a good name?
1. It can be inherited- a son can inherit the good name of a father
2. as soon as one can one should strive for greatness
3. a military career.
4. hard mental work, attention to restraint, respect for parents, kindness toward relatives
5. Attaching oneself to quality people- for people tend to think that a person tends to have the same traits as those they associate with.
6. by eloquence- which consists of two parts- a. the ability be persuasive in a court case or public setting or b. conversation.
There are two kinds of court cases: defense and prosecution
There are rules for these court cases. Never prosecute a person on capital charges who is innocent. For it is wrong to use eloquence to destroy an innocent person in court. Eloquence should be used for the safety and preservation of people.
As long as someone has not committed an heinous crime, he may be rightfully defended. The masses desire it, custom accepts it and it is the humane thing to do. For it is the judge who is supposed to look for truth. The attorney is to present what is plausible.
Now we discuss kindness and generosity. There are two ways to help the needy:
1. effort
2. money
Money is easier but service is more noble. Too many bank withdrawals and one becomes less likely to have enough to help others. But putting forth effort, helping others helps to encourage others to help others. This pulls society together. The habit of service produces practice in service. But the distribution of money only produces the expectation of more. Kindness which requires effort and diligence benefits a greater number of people.
Gifts of money are fine as long as it is not overdone and one must make sure that it is deserved. Cicero praises that generosity which draws people together and encourages the same from others. Huge outlay of expenditures can only appeal to slaves and the servile types.
There are ways to practice largess in a manner that has lasting benefit. Such as a banquet in the street for all during some festival.
Cicero is an example. For he rose to each office in the first year he was eligible and yet spent modestly during his Aedileship. It is better he says to give money for docks, harbors, walls, aqueducts. These serve the whole community. He thinks less so of theaters, porticos and new temples. His guiding rule is a quote from Ennius:
bene facta male locata male facta arbitror=
I think that good deeds poorly employed are bad deeds.
There are many ways to bring benefit to others, if done properly it brings benefit to more than one.
The ability to speak is a fine means for benefiting society.
It is very important that an act of kindness for one does not injure another. People often give based of the anticipation of a return. Cicero points out that the poor are more appreciative of generosity in the form of service.:
ego vero malo virum qui pecunia eget, quam pecuniam, quae viro.=
I prefer a man who needs money rather than money which needs a man
The worship of money has corrupted and debased morals and customs.
All of the above puts an obligation upon leaders to protect property:
1. the purpose of the state is to protect property of people and not use the power of government to take it away
2. avoid taxes
3. maintain high standards
The love of money has produced the necessity for more and more trials for extortion.
Cicero gives numerous examples from the past of those who benefited the state but did not increase their wealth. No vice is worse for a leader than greed:
habere enim quaestui rem publicam non modo turpe est, sed sceleratum etiam et nefarium=
to use the state for personal profit is not only repulsive but also darn right wicked and evil.
Those who disrupt the foundations of society, the protection of property, by taking from some to give to others hope to gain the love of people but in the end do not.
Cicero's story of Aratus is used to contrast with the unjust manner in which Caesar operates. It is a mark of greatness to keep the interests of the entire state in one's sights.
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