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| SOCRATES |
710. De Finibus Book 1 by Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero dedicates the De Finibus to Marcus Brutus. Cicero discusses four reasons often given to shun the study of philosophy:
1. Some people disapprove.
2. Some feel that it is ok to pursue as long as one does not go too deep.
3. Some feel it is better to read these subjects in Greek.
4. Some suggest that it is beneath Cicero's dignity to pursue such activities.
#1 Cicero says tha he already answered with his work Hortensius which sadly has been lost.
#2 Cicero points out that it is difficult to set aside the study of something whose value only increases the further one goes.
#3 Greeks read works written by Greeks why not Romans reading works by Romans?
#4 Cicero states that it is a patriotic duty to pursue philosophy. Are we to discuss complex points of law but neglect those things which embrace all of life?
The Title is De Finibus (On Ends)So what is the topic of discussion here? What is meant by finis (end)? Cicero asks a question- what is the greatest good (finis) by which every deliberation of living well and of acting properly must be directed? What standard do we use to judge what is right and what is wrong? What is the very essence of the nature of humans which informs us should be sought and avoided?
This question is first answered by the system of Epicurus. Three people are in the discussion: Cicero, Lucius Torquatus and Caius Triarius.
Torquatus hints that he knows that Cicero does not like Epicureanism because the style of Epicurus is dry and barren of art. But Cicero replies that there are writers of value whose style is simple and barren. Epicurus says that goodness is not desirable for its own sake. If there is an argument to find a flaw in this statement then Epicurus whole system collapses.
S
I have a suspicion that what really bothered Cicero about Epicureanism was Epicurus' assertion that only his system was needed to gain access to the truth. (Think about it this is not the only system in history which made this claim. The really dangerous ones possessed the political might to enforce their will. In the time of Epicurus human society was not designed to allow singular systems to control outcomes.)
Before the discussion begins Cicero gives brief points on the give and take necessary in discussion. Torquatus begins by saying that he is sure that when he has finished that all will agree with the system of Epicurus.
Torquatus states that Epicurus argues that pleasure (voluptas) is the highest good and pain is the greatest evil. He points out that every animal seeks pleasure and avoids pain and does so as long as not prevented. This is evidence that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain is natural. To Epicurus this is obvious. Consequently he thinks that the sense are infallible. We simply know what pleasure is and what pain is.
Consequently the sense are enough. After all there is a difference between complex analysis and what is simply obvious. Without our senses there is nothing. So what else is there in nature except to seek pleasure and avoid pain?
(Notice that Epicurus has no interest nor places any value on detailed argument, definitions and systems of logic.)
( It interesting to note that followers of Epicurus seem to come near to worship of Epicurus.)
Torquatus continues: we endure toil and hardship only because there is some future pleasure at stake. Thus people do noble things not because it is the right thing to do but because it is for their own advantage and benefit.
The greatest pleasure is when all pain has been removed. Pleasure is the complete removal of pain. The only basis of thought is via that of some physical sensation. All delights of life are measured by physical joy both in terms of the present and memories of the past. If the greatest evil is pain then the highest good is pleasure. Thus actions are only correct when these pertain to attaining pleasure.
There is one master- Epicurus.
Consequently virtue (moral goodness/right action/morality) is sought because inb the end it will bring pleasure.
Torquatus argues in support of this: we value the knowledge of a doctor not because of the art itself but because of the good health it brings. Wisdom is the art of living whose purpose is to produce pleasure.
But desire (cupiditas) is the enemy of stability in an individual and a state. Wisdom is necessary to achieve peace and keep desires (cupiditas) at bay. Temperance (restraint) is not sought for its own sake but for the greater pleasure which results from it. Sometimes pleasure is passed by when someone calculates that an even greater pleasure awaits. Causing an injury or doing a wrong should be avoided because of the trouble a person may get into. Pleasure is to be sought as long as it avoids disgrace. Pleasure is greatest if there is no indication of evil on the way.
Consequently the good life is directly dependent upon the physical body. Thus too whatever we see in the mind has its origin in the senses. We can not see anything which does not have its beginning in something we touch, hear, smell, taste and see.
There is no learning, nothing of value which does not aid the system of the happy life as defined by Epicurus. There is only one way to look at the world and Epicurus has all the answers: poetry, music, art, sculpture have nothing to offer in that these begin from false premises. More importantly no other system of thought has any contribution of value to add.
(To try to explain- there would no value in Epicurus' view of a sculpture of Silenus holding a child because Silenus, a divinity and myth did not exist and therefor we would be looking at a lie, something false. A painting of a field would be false- after all the painting is two dimensions and lacks any connection to reality. Music would be worthless because it would not bring pleasure and make life better.)
(This seems to give an interesting definition to pleasure. Pleasure is that which gives a sensation to the body which can be measured in terms of advantage to the person hearing it.)
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