712. De Finibus III by Marcus Tullius Cicero. In light of the argument in book two Cicero thinks that pleasure must yield to virtue. The weaknesses of Epicureanism lie in the fact that they think that they have the one and only answer. There is no reason to present an argument on pleasure as it is obvious, since judgement resides in the senses. They do not employ logic and avoid detailed discussion. These last two make any argument against Stoicism more difficult because Stoicism does employ extensive argument and heavy dosages of logic.
The Stoics require new words to explain their system. Cicero points out that farmers, artisans develop their own vocabulary- why can't Stoics do the same?
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| SPINARIO |
The scene which Cicero describes to begin book 3 is justifiably famous. Cicero has gone to the house of Lucius Licinius Lucullus, whose library was very extensive. Lucullus has since passed away but his young son lives there and welcomes those who wish to take advantage of the library. Cicero has come to find commentaries by Aristotle. To his surprise when he enters he finds Cato on the floor with books scattered all about him.
The two men are pleased to see each other and very soon express a sense of obligation for the education of young Lucullus. It is interesting that the vocabulary and terms they use would be unworkable and unsuitable to Epicureanism. So this scene, although delightful and entertaining is not a cute exercise in elegance but an example of the presence and value of arguments presented earlier.
They sit on the floor together. I assume that pillows were there for comfort. There must have been abundant light through windows and a garden in view.
Both Cato and Cicero view arguments of Epicurus as dangerous, yet there is no sense that those who follow it should be sought out for destruction.
Cato begins: there is only one good- honestum (moral worth). If this were not so, there would be no way to prove that the good life is brought about by virtue. The essence of virtue is to select those things which are in accordance with nature. Those who make all things equal have no means of selection. The guide, the queen, is virtue.
(Cicero did not think that word for word translations arrived at accuracy).
Cato's tone is different from that of Torquatus who presented Epicureanism. Torquatus made it clear that he had the one and only answer. Cato said " whose system I approve."
The starting points begins with love of self. We consider certain things worthy of acquiring because they bear appearance to truth. Thus the initial path to truth is derived from the nature of humans. The evidence is that children enjoy discovering even though they gain nothing as a result. The use of reason brings delight. Mental activities are sought because these require the use of reason. Thus children shrink back from assenting to a lie.
That is valuable which is in harmony with nature or that which brings it about. For that reason it is worthy of selection.
The first priority (officium) is to preserve oneself by holding these things which are in accordance with nature. Then when selection and rejection have been discovered, selection with a sense of obligation follows. (cum officio) Habit follows. Then what is good begins to appear and to be understood.
Habit of good selection creates a compelling desire to select. Wisdom is based on these primary acts (love of self which is maintained by selection of those things in harmony with nature) of nature.
To be in harmony with nature is like dancing. It is in the performance of the art. But there is a difference- in dance one movement though beautifully executed does not contain all the parts of which these movements consist.
Wisdom covers a much greater area than say medicine. Wisdom causes us to judge what happens as not that important, it embraces justice and greatness of mind. If the ultimate end is to live in harmony with nature, all wise people are perpetually happy, blessed and fortunate.
(In this sense, Stoicism is like Epicureanism- both seek a means to inner peace. But the big difference lies in thew fact that Epicureanism places that inner peace dependent upon external pleasures.)
(It is more and more clear to me that these words of Cicero are meant to be read in a garden.)
Cato uses a syllogism:
What is good is worthy of praise
What is worthy of praise is morally honorable.
What is good is morally honorable.
Because the ultimate good is in the mind, to live in harmony with nature is to reject pain and death as an evil. For to live in harmony with nature is to select reason as a guide and this is completely within the grasp of the individual. Any other choice means that happiness is impossible. The only evil is what is base- this too is wholly under an individual's control.
Because the mind is the key, an act that is wrong is wrong the moment it has begun. Even if the thought is not carried out. Then too right action if not brought to completion is right from the moment it is begun.
Bonum is defined as that which is by nature perfect. When the mind begins to put things together by observance of those things in harmony with nature it begins to arrive at an understanding of the good (bonum).
Good is not increased, added to, or good by comparison- it is good by its own force. Just as honey is very sweet not by comparison to something else but is sweet by its own force, thus something is good not by comparison to something else, not because of quantity but valuable in and of itself. One good is not rated about another.
Lust, fear, sorrow, pleasure are not set in motion by nature force, because these are irrational in the sense that these display a lack of control.
(Nature is that which is logical. That is why these guys studied natural history, biology, plants, animals, logic, and all human activity.)
Virtue is not improved by the addition of health for example. Health is valued but its value never matches virtue. Cato adds a criticism of the Peripatetics- to these, Cato asserts, an action which is morally correct but without pain is more desirable than moral action with pain. For Cato and Stoicism this would introduce an element of chance to the attainment of wisdom and remove wisdom from the realm of the mind for the infliction of pain could indeed be external over which the wise person would have no control.
So for Stoics right conduct, right time/timeliness (doing something at the right time), harmony, the good is not increased by adding more.
Cato offers the simile of the shoe- if a shoe fits the foot just right, more shoes, bigger shoes would not make it better.
The value of health is measured by duration whereas the value of virtue is measured by timeliness.
There are no degrees of good or right action. If there were degrees, then someone would be wiser than another or be able to practice right conduct more than another.
(The elimination of degrees makes the logic of the argument stronger.)
Wealth may assist in the art of living but is not essential. The art of living is a life long quest and is distinct from all other arts for the art of living is its own reward.
Some things are preferred: wealth, health, freedom from pain, etc. BUT these have no bearing on virtue. Everthing which is good holds first place but things preferred are neither good nor bad.
Cato presents the division of goods:
1. Those which are suitable toward the final end (moral actions)
2. Those which bring about completion of the final end, such as friendship.
3. Those which are both of the above, such as wisdom.
These are things preferred for gaining wisdom: appearance, countenance, grace of movement, money, good senses, health, good reputation, BUT none of these are essential fort virtue. These are worthy of approval (probabile) but in and of themselves are not necessary.
An action done by reason is an appropriate act (officium). To put it another way- there must be a reason to do something and that something must have the goal of virtue in mind.
The rejection and acceptance of neutral things employed for art of living/living in harmony with nature are classed among appropriate action. Both those who are indeed wise and those on their way will chose what is in harmony with nature. There is an appropriate action common to both. All appropriate acts set out from neutral things.
Life is measured by preponderance of things in harmony with nature or contrary to nature. Thus it is possible that a wise person who is happy may decide to quit life.
The source of community/town/city is parental love of children. Cato supports this with the design of the human body which was designed for procreation. It is illogical that nature would provide for procreation but not provide for love of what has been procreated. Cato says, "We seem to hear the voice of nature herself when we see the effort of animals in the bearing and raising of offspring."
This love unites human beings. Just as there is a mussel with which a small crab lives which knows when danger approaches because the crab scampers into the mussel's shell. The same is true with the stork, ants, bees. Animals are interdependent and exist in a symbiotic relationship. With humans it is much, much more complex.
The universe is ruled by a divine power and the common possession of Gods and people. Thus the common advantage is more important than the individual. Those who do not care what happens after they die are wrong for all people should have a care for those of future generations.
Community is a natural product. (This is why Romans considered cities and its buildings a natural product- humans are part of nature and by nature want to be in harmony with nature.)
Just examine people- teaching and sharing ideas are natural attributes of people. Just as humans learn to use their limbs before they understand for what purpose these exist, thus we naturally come together to form society. If this were not the case there would be place for justice and goodness or kindness.
Humans are naturally inclined to help and protect others. Thus the wise person wants to be involved in politics.
Justice and friendship are impossible unless these are sought for their own sake. If these are sought as a means to fame, wealth, health, power, then when these are secured, justice would have no value.
The Stoics add dialectic and physics to the list of virtues. Dialectic prevents a person from being fooled by a slick argument. Physics would entail a study of those characteristics of humans and nature to refute fake assertions about the nature of humans.
So what is this physics Cato mentions? Physics can be called natural philosophy. That is a study of nature in all aspects: stars, planets, universe, animals, plants, weather, geology, etc. Sadly things have changed.
Cicero provides an awesome quote:
However, no one is able to make a judgement about good and evil, unless when all the system of nature and of the life of the Gods has been learned and whether or not the nature of a human is in harmony with the universe. (73).
